IC-N 


'  '  Y 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Class 


LIGHTING  BY  ACETYLENE 

/ 

GENERATORS,   BURNERS   AND 
ELECTRIC    FURNACES 


BY 

WILLIAM    E.    GIBBS,    M.E. 


SECOND  EDITION,    REVISED  AND  ENLARGED 


DIVERSITY  J 

OF  / 

NEW   YORK 

D.  VAN   NOSTRAN7D   COMPANY 


LONDON 
CROSBY   LOCKWOOD   AND   SON 

1899 


COPYRIGHT,  1899,  BY 
D.  VAN   NOSTRAND  COMPANY 


TROW  DIRECTORY 

PRINTING  AND  BOOKBINDING  COMPANY 
NEW  YORK 


v* 

V 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTION  TO  SECOND  EDITION,           .         .  \  * 

ACETYLENE  (INTRODUCTION),          ....  i 

ACETYLENE  (HISTORY), 4 

DANGERS  OF  ACETYLENE, g 

EXPLOSIVENESS, g 

ACETYLIDE    OF    COPPER, n 

Toxic  PROPERTIES, IJ 

EFFECTS  UPON  THE  EYES, ^ 

ELECTRIC   FURNACES,          .......  15 

A   CONTINUOUS   ELECTRIC   FURNACE,.         ...  26 

GENERATION   OF   ACETYLENE, 35 

THE   DRY    PROCESS   GENERATOR, 4I 

THE   WET   PROCESS   GENERATOR, 49 

THE   PLUNGER,     ?        .         . 55 

IMPURITIES    OF    CARBIDE    AND    ACETYLENE,   .         .  63 

GENERATORS, 69 

FIRST  CLASS,        .        ...        .                 .        .        .  70 

SECOND  CLASS,     .        ...        .        .        .        .        .  95 

THIRD  CLASS,      .        .   '     .        .        .     *  .        .        .        .  99 

ACETYLENE   LAMPS,    .                 .        .  m 


50(>26 


iv  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

ACETYLENE   BURNERS 119 

AUTHOR'S  EXPERIMENTS, 129 

CONCLUSION,          .  .147 

FIRE   REGULATIONS, ,        .     151 

LIST  OF   UNITED   STATES  PATENTS,     .        ,        .        .155 


INTRODUCTION  TO  SECOND   EDITION 

WHEN  the  first  edition  of  this  treatise  was  written, 
in  the  months  of  January  and  February,  1898,  a  host 
of  acetylene  generators  was  appearing.  New  types 
and  modifications  of  older  forms  were  being  put 
upon  the  market,  while  hundreds  were  rushing  into 
the  new  field  opened  by  the  production  of  calcium 
carbide.  The  apparent  simplicity  of  fhe  gas-making 
process  from  this  new  substance  was  sufficiently  at- 
tractive to  excite  the  interest  of  inventors  generally, 
and  to  develop  a  large  number  of  worthless  gener- 
ators, constructed  by  those  having  little  mechanical 
knowledge  and  no  ability  to  solve  the  difficulties 
encountered. 

The  early  machines  were  of  the  type  originally 
known  as  "  briquet  hydrogen  " — now  known  as  the 
plunger  or  dip  generators.  The  next  to  appear 
were  the  dry  generators,  so-called,  in  which  water 
was  sprinkled  or  dripped  upon  the  carbide — some- 
times now  called  drip  machines.  These  were  an 
enormous  step  in  advance  of  the  plunging  machine, 
but  with  the  overcoming  of  the  earlier  objections 
other  corresponding  difficulties  were  encountered ; 
and  later,  when  the  wet  process  or  chute  generator 
was  introduced,  it  was  thought  that  a  great  step  in 
advance  had  been  made.  This  opinion  was  in  the 
main  correct,  as  has  been  shown  by  the  investiga- 


VI  INTRODUCTION   TO   SECOND   EDITION 

tions  of  those  who  have  seriously  and  understand- 
ingly  studied  the  problem ;  but  the  same  thing 
happened  in  this  case  that  occurred  when  the  dry 
machine  was  substituted  for  the  plunger.  Where 
certain  objections  were  overcome,  others  were  en- 
countered ;  and  while  all  types  of  machines,  and 
especially  the  latter  two,  were  excellent  gas  pro- 
ducers, they  were  difficult  of  management,  and  some 
of  them  were  dangerous.  The  gradual  addition  of 
parts  for  protection  against  each  element  of  danger 
or  inconvenience  has  made  the  machines  safer,  more 
efficient,  and  durable.  At  the  same  time,  it  has  made 
them  more  likely  to  become  disarranged. 

The  complications  which  have  grown  out  of  the 
older  and  simpler  forms  of  generators  have  not, 
however,  rendered  possible  the  charging  of  the  dry 
machine  with  carbide,  without  the  introduction  of 
air  or  the  opening  of  the  reservoir  containing  an 
explosive  mixture  of  air  and  acetylene.  This,  with 
such  machines,  is  the  greatest  fault,  and  is  the  one 
which  has  been  most  difficult  to  overcome. 

With  the  wet  machine,  the  loss  of  gas  during  the 
passage  of  the  carbide  down  the  chute,  even  if  the 
same  be  filled  with  oil,  is  very  considerable  when 
using  finely  powdered  carbide  ;  and  this  has  not  been 
overcome.  The  waste  of  gas  is  perhaps  not  of  great 
importance;  but  the  possibilities  which  exist  for  its 
admixture  in  explosive  quantities  with  air  in  the  room 
containing  the  generator,  and  the  odor  which  it  is 
sure  to  cause,  make  the  generators  of  either  type 
most  unpleasant  companions  in  the  house. 


INTRODUCTION   TO   SECOND   EDITION  Vll 

The  solution  of  this  problem  of  getting  the  car- 
bide  into  the  generator  without  the  admission  of  air 
or  the  emission  of  gas  is  of  the  first  importance. 

An  almost  equally  difficult  problem,  but  one  of 
less  moment,  is  the  removal  of  the  residuum  from 
the  machine.  The  paste  or  semi-liquid  substance 
which  must  be  removed  from  the  dry  machine,  and 
the  thin,  creamy  sludge  from  the  wet  machine,  are 
both  difficult  of  management.  It  has  been  proposed 
to  wash  the  residuum  into  the  sewer;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  lime 
would  make  an  insoluble  soap  with  the  grease  al- 
ways present  in  the  drains,  which  would  eventually 
clog  them.  In  country  districts,  the  use  of  a  small 
cesspool  built  especially  for  the  purpose  of  contain, 
ing  the  sludge  seems  a  suitable  expedient.  Indeed, 
in  communities  where  cesspools  are  used  for  the 
disposal  of  sewage,  there  should  be  no  objection  to 
draining  directly  into  them.  The  lime  is  an  excel- 
lent  disinfectant,  and  similar  properties  are  claimed 
for  the  acetylene  which  the  water  holds  in  solution. 

The  author,  in  the  first  edition  of  this  book,  advo- 
cated strongly  the  use  of  an  out-door  generator  built 
within  a  cistern.  Those  which  he  constructed  upon 
this  plan  for  his  own  use  and  for  experimental  work 
have  given  no  trouble,  and  have  been  extremely  sat- 
isfactory. The  same,  or  even  larger,  losses  of  gas 
while  the  carbide  passes  down  the  chute  are  present 
in  this  machine,  which  must  have  a  water-seal  of 
considerable  length ;  but  being  remote  from  the  place 
where  the  lights  are  used,  it  causes  no  inconven- 


Vlll  INTRODUCTION  TO   SECOND   EDITION 

ience.  The  expense  of  the  installation,  however,  is 
many  times  that  of  the  portable  machine.  There 
seems  no  reason  why  a  small  frost-proof  building 
should  not  be  substituted  for  the  underground  con- 
struction. It  has  often  been  proposed  to  fill  the  gas- 
holder with  oil,  and  to  protect  the  generator  by 
means  of  non-conducting  material.  In  that  case  the 
heat  set  free  by  the  reaction  between  the  carbide 
and  the  water  can  be  prevented  from  escaping, 
and  would  maintain  a  sufficiently  high  temperature 
to  prevent  the  freezing  of  the  generator  in  cold 
weather.  The  author  has  been  unable  to  verify  this 
condition,  for  lack  of  sufficiently  cold  climate. 

In  this  latter  form  of  out-door  generator,  it  would 
be  necessary,  in  the  event  of  using  a  dry  machine,  to 
employ  a  saturated  solution  of  brine  for  the  exciting 
fluid. 

The  abandonment  of  some  of  the  earlier  types  of 
machines,  and  the  dissatisfaction  which  even  the 
best  of  the  more  modern  ones  have  given  from 
these  causes,  makes  it  imperative  that  some  radical 
changes  be  made  before  the  generator  can  be  de- 
clared a  complete  success. 

Means  must  be  provided  whereby  carbide,  coarse 
or  fine,  or  in  any  condition  in  which  it  usually  comes 
from  the  works,  can  be  put  into  the  generator  abso- 
lutely without  the  loss  of  gas  or  admission  of  air. 

Means  must  also  be  provided  for  removing  the 
residuum  under  the  same  conditions,  and,  in  the  case 
of  the  wet  machine,  without  breaking  the  seal 
through  which  the  carbide  enters  the  chute.  Diffi- 


INTRODUCTION   TO   SECOND   EDITION  ix 

cult  as  these  problems  seem,  they  are  both  possible 
of  solution ;  and  upon  them  the  most  strenuous  ef- 
forts of  the  inventor  should  be  expended.  Their 
solution  will  at  once  make  the  use  of  the  genera- 
tors within  houses  as  safe  as  the  use  of  kerosene 
lamps,  and  will  entirely  remove  the  disagreeable 
elements  of  odor  and  lime-stains.  Until  this  is  ac- 
complished, the  user  of  acetylene  must  tolerate  its 
inconveniences  for  the  sake  of  its  incomparable 
light. 


LIGHTING   BY  ACETYLENE 


INTRODUCTION 

IN  an  attempt  to  set  forth  the  facts  concerning 
the  development  of  the  kindred  industries  of  calcic 
carbide  production  and  the  generation  of  acetylene 
therefrom,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  both  proc- 
esses, so  far  as  their  industrial  application  is  in- 
volved, are  of  very  recent  date. 

Whatever  is  written  about  either  must  be  con- 
sidered as  an  exposition  of  the  art  so  far  only  as 
it  is  known  at  the  moment  of  writing.  Revision 
or  even  radical  change  of  ideas  may  be  expected 
from  time  to  time  as  continued  experiment  brings 
to  light  new  facts  about  these  hardly  known  sub- 
stances. 

A  recent  serious  explosion  of  liquefied  acetylene 
prompts  the  writing  of  what  follows,  since  it  would 
seem  that  ignorance  or  neglect  of  the  admonitions 
of  earlier  experimenters  was  to  blame  for  an  ac- 
cident which  cannot  but  prejudice  many  against  the 
use  of  a  valuable  and  safe  ilium inant. 

Since  the  French  have  been  unusually  keen  in 
the  pursuit  of  information  concerning  calcium  car- 


2  LIGHTING  BY   ACETYLENE 

bide  and  acetylene,  and  have  not  only  devised  many 
machines  for  generating  the  gas,  and  furnaces  for 
producing  the  carbide,  but  have  made  public  the 
results  obtained,  their  books  and  pamphlets  on  the 
subject  have  been  freely  drawn  upon  for  details  of 
foreign  practice. 

As  for  the  American  gas  generators,  a  description 
of  types  of  those  which  the  author  has  been  able  to 
discover  from  an  examination  of  the  United  States 
Patent  Office  records,  direct  interviews  with  the 
manufacturers  or  inquiry  among  the  carbide  dealers 
is  included  ;  but,  since  hundreds  are  experimenting 
in  this  field,  and  since  two  or  three  new  generators 
are  patented  in  this  country  each  week,  it  is  quite 
impossible  to  include  the  most  recent  ones. 

Suffice  it  to  say  that,  in  the  very  nature  of  the 
problem  involved,  generators  may  all  be  divided 
into  three  classes,  and  that  any  new  machine  can 
differ  from  the  existing  forms  only  in  matters  of 
detail. 

For  the  production  of  acetylene  it  is  necessary 
to  bring  calcic  carbide  into  contact  with  water  in 
some  kind  of  vessel  from  which  the  resulting  gas 
may  be  conveyed  for  use. 

Whether  the  carbide  is  thrown  into  water,  or  the 
water  is  poured  upon  the  carbide,  is  in  general  terms 
a  matter  of  indifference,  the  result  being  practically 
the  same. 

When,  however,  the  renewal  of  the  carbide  be- 
comes necessary  in  order  to  keep  up  a  continuous 
supply  of  gas,  complications  immediately  enter  the 


INTRODUCTION  3 

problem,  which  becomes  still  further  involved  when 
the  removal  of  the  lime  resulting  from  the'reaction 
is  attempted. 

The  generation  of  a  quantity  of  acetylene  is  a 
very  simple  matter.  The  devising  of  means  for 
delivering  a  constant  supply  of  gas,  supplying  calcic 
carbide  to  the  generator  and  removing  the  lime 
therefrom  has  taxed  the  ingenuity  of  some  of  our 
ablest  inventors. 

The  ideal  machine  has  certainly  not  yet  been  in- 
vented, but  existing  forms  are  being  constantly  im- 
proved, and  at  the  present  writing,  the  safe,  efficient 
and  cheap  lighting  of  houses  by  acetylene  is  an  ac- 
complished fact. 


HISTORY 

ALTHOUGH  only  recently  become  of  commercial 
importance,  acetylene  has  been  known  chemically 
since  1836,  when  the  chemist  Edmond  Davy  an- 
nounced the  discovery  of  "  a  new  gaseous  bicar- 
buret  of  hydrogen  and  of  a  particular  compound  of 
carbon  and  potassium,  or  carburet  of  potassium,"  in 
the  British  Association  Reports,  1836,  pt.  2,  p.  62. 

In  1861,  the  German  chemist  Wohler  prepared 
calcium  carbide  by  heating  a  mixture  of  lime  and 
carbon  in  the  presence  of  zinc. 

Berthelot,in  his  classic  synthesis  of  a  hydrocarbon, 
passed  hydrogen  through  a  receiver  in  which  an 
electric  arc  was  maintained  between  carbon  elec- 
trodes. The  hydrogen  combined  with  the  vaporized 
carbon  to  form  acetylene  (C2H2),  which  was  passed 
through  an  ammoniacal  solution  of  copper,  where 
acetylide  of  copper  (C2H2Cu9O)  was  precipitated. 

Berthelot,  in  1866,  obtained  carbide  of  sodium  by 
gently  heating  metallic  sodium  in  an  atmosphere  of 
acetylene.  The  acetylene,  being  absorbed,  produced 
C3H2Na,  and,  upon  being  raised  to  a  red  heat,  the 
hydrogen  was  driven  off,  leaving  sodium  carbide 
(C2Na)  as  a  heavy,  dark,  stone-like  mass,  which  gave 
off  acetylene  when  thrown  into  water. 

Others  since  then  have  formed  various  carbides, 

4 


HISTORY  5 

which  have  been  used  in  the  laboratory  as  a  conven- 
ient means  of  producing  acetylene. 

In  a  note  to  the  Academic  des  Sciences,  presented 
on  December  12,  1892,  Moissan,  who  had  been  ex- 
perimenting  with  the  electric  furnace,  made  the 
statement  that  "  If  the  temperature  of  the  electric 
furnace  reaches  3,000°  the  material  of  the  furnace 
itself,  the  quick-lime,  melts  and  runs  like  water.  At 
this  temperature  the  carbon  rapidly  reduces  the 
oxide  of  calcium  and  the  metal  is  set  free  in  abun- 
dance. It  combines  easily  with  the  carbon  of  the 
electrodes  to  form  carbide  of  calcium,  fluid  at  this 
heat,  which  is  easily  recovered." 

In  March,  1894,  Moissan  presented  to  the  Aca- 
demic a  sample  of  pure  crystalline  calcium  carbide 
which  he  had  obtained  by  submitting  a  mixture  of 
powdered  lime  and  carbon  to  the  action  of  the 
electric  furnace. 

Prior  to  this  time,  in  America  experiments  had 
been  conducted  with  the  electric  furnace  on  a  very 
extensive  scale.  The  Cowles  furnace  was  being 
used  for  the  production  of  aluminum,  and  carborun- 
dum produced  in  the  electric  furnace  had  become 
an  article  of  commerce.  Mr.  Thos.  L.  Willson  had 
built  a  plant  containing  an  electric  furnace,  with 
which  he  was  experimenting  upon  further  improve- 
ments in  the  production  of  metals  and  alloys. 

According  to  the  most  authentic  reports,  the  dis- 
covery by  him  of  calcium  carbide  was  an  incident 
in  his  search  for  a  flux  which  should  prevent  the 
spattering  of  the  molten  alloys  in  the  furnace  from 


O  LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 

interfering  with  and  short-circuiting  the  arc.  The 
use  of  lime  and  carbon  for  this  purpose  naturally  re- 
sulted in  the  production  of  calcium  carbide.  While 
others,  no  doubt,  produced  unwittingly  the  same 
substance,  none  had  noticed  its  character  or  taken 
advantage  of  the  future  which  it  promised  until  Mr. 
Willson  was  impressed  by  its  possible  commercial 
value. 

The  French  unanimously  accord  the  discovery  of 
the  crystalline  carbide  to  the  chemist  Henri  Mois- 
san,  and  urge  most  ably  the  validity  of  his  claims  to 
the  discovery  of  the  substance. 

The  whole  matter  has  been  taken  up  by  the 
Progressive  Age,  of  New  York,  in  a  series  of  articles 
published  during  the  summer  of  1898,  in  which  the 
claims  of  both  Moissan  and  Willson  are  very  fairly 
set  forth.  The  bulk  of  the  testimony  would  seem 
to  show  that  Moissan  had  produced  the  carbide  in 
small  quantities  in  a  laboratory  furnace  prior  to  its 
discovery  by  Willson ;  but  had  it  not  been  for  Amer- 
ican foresight  and  enterprise,  the  commercial  im- 
portance of  calcium  carbide  as  a  factor  in  lighting 
would  probably  for  a  long  time  have  remained  hid- 
den in  the  foreign  laboratories.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  to  Willson  belongs  the  credit  of  the  discovery 
of  calcium  carbide  in  its  commercial  form,  and  for 
the  industrial  purposes  of  gas-making. 

It  is  not  to  be  wondered,  when  we  consider  the 
possibilities  opened  up  by  the  electric  furnace,  that 
many  experimenters  hit  upon  the  same  facts  and 
were  experimenting  along  the  same  lines  ;  and  it  is 


HISTORY  7 

if 

only  charitable  to  believe  that  the  claims  of  each  in- 
ventor are  based  upon  his  honest  belief. 

Since  the  first  edition  of  this  book  was  written, 
many  other  experimenters  have  been  discovered 
who,  between  the  years  1836  and  1894,  made  some 
contribution  to  Science  concerning  the  properties 
of  acetylene.  None,  however,  conceived  the  possi- 
bility of  using  the  gas  industrially  until  the  electric 
furnace  had  become  a  factor  of  modern  manufactur- 
ing arts ;  and  while  such  honor  is  due  them  as  the 
chemist  usually  receives  for  his  discoveries,  their 
work,  viewed  from  an  industrial  stand-point,  is  of 
little  importance. 

The  investigator  who  wishes  to  decide  for  himself 
the  relative  merits  of  the  claims  for  priority  of  in- 
vention of  calcium  carbide  is  referred  to  Perrodil's 
text-book  on  acetylene  and  calcium  carbide,  a  trans- 
lation of  which  was  published  in  Progressive  Age, 
and  the  numbers  of  Progressive  Age  in  which  the 
claims  of  Willson  are  set  forth. 


DANGERS  OF  ACETYLENE 

Two  or  three  years  ago,  when  the  commercial 
production  of  acetylene  was  first  attracting  general 
attention,  the  most  diverse  and  exaggerated  ac- 
counts of  its  dangerous  properties  were  published. 
By  some  it  was  declared  to  be  intensely  poisonous, 
by  others  frightfully  explosive,  while  a  third  faction 
announced  that  it  readily  formed  explosive  com- 
pounds with  the  metals  of  the  pipes  and  gasometers 
necessary  for  its  use. 

Since  the  truth  concerning  this  gas  is  now  well 
known,  it  seems  needless  to  enter  upon  a  detailed 
description  of  the  dangers  then  predicted,  and  it 
will  be  sufficient  excuse  for  the  misinformation  so 
generally  disseminated  to  say  that  much  of  the  early 
carbide  was  very  impure. 

No  doubt  the  gas  resulting  from  its  decomposi- 
tion contained  all  kinds  of  undesirable  substances, 
some  explosive,  some  toxic,  and  some  tending  to 
favor  the  formation  of  the  detonating  acetylides  of 
metals. 

Now,  however,  that  we  may  be  sure  of  the  purity 
of  our  carbide,  the  dangers  attending  the  use  of 
acetylene  have  been  exactly  determined. 

Without  going  into  the  details  of  the  experiments 
conducted  by  the  ablest  chemists  of  the  time,  or  re- 

8 


DANGERS   OF  ACETYLENE  9 

lating  the  experiences  of  those  who  have  labored  to 
bring  into  vogue  the  practical  and  industrial  appli- 
cation of  acetylene,  it  will  suffice  to  present  a 
synopsis  of  the  dangers  attending  the  use  of  this  gas 
and  the  means  for  obviating  them  : 

EXPLOSIVENESS. 

Acetylene,  as  alarmists  are  so  fond  of  stating,  is 
an  endothermic  substance,  which  means  that  in  its 
production  a  certain  quantity  of  heat  is  absorbed 
and  disappears.  This  heat,  or  its  equivalent  in  some 
other  form  of  energy,  exists  in  the  substance,  tend- 
ing and  striving  to  reassert  itself  upon  provocation. 
For  this  reason  the  gas,  under  certain  conditions,  is 
an  unstable  body.  It  tends  to  resolve  itself  into  its 
component  elements,  carbon  and  hydrogen,  and 
when  such  dissociation  is  by  any  means  brought 
about  without  the  presence  of  other  substances,  the 
result  is  a  certain  quantity  of  hydrogen  and  a  mass 
of  finely  divided  carbon. 

This  dissociation  can  be  effected  in  a  body  of 
acetylene  gas  at  atmospheric  pressure  by  the 
detonation  therein  of  a  small  quantity  of  fulminate 
of  mercury  or  other  violent  explosive,  AND  BY  NO 

OTHER   MEANS. 

Heat,  flame,  the  electric  spark  or  the  electric 
arc  itself  will  not,  according  to  the  most  careful  ex- 
periments, produce  an  explosion  under  these  con- 
ditions. 

When  the  gas  is  condensed,  however,  it  becomes, 


IO  LIGHTING  BY   ACETYLENE 

with  each  increment  of  pressure,  more  and  more 
unstable,  and,  in  consequence,  more  easily  exploded 
until  the  point  of  liquefaction  is  reached,  when  it  be- 
comes as  dangerous  as  the  high  explosives. 

The  disastrous  results  which  have  invariably 
followed  the  attempts  to  liquefy  acetylene  should 
be  sufficient  warning  against  this  procedure. 

The  only  place  where  there  is  any  excuse  for 
compressing  acetylene  is  in  the  chemical  labora- 
tory, where  its  properties  are  being  studied  by  those 
skilled  in  dealing  with  unstable  compounds,  and 
where  explosions  are  expected  and  provided  for  as 
a  matter  of  course. 

Taking  it  for  granted  that,  until  the  dangers  at- 
tending the  use  of  liquid  acetylene  have  been  over- 
come, the  gas  under  a  pressure  only  slightly  above 
that  of  the  atmosphere  will  be  used  in  machines  for 
industrial  lighting,  we  may  state  that,  so  long  as 
acetylene  is  unmixed  with  any  other  substance,  it 
cannot  be  exploded  by  the  means  usually  at  com- 
mand. 

An  admixture  of  air  with  acetylene  at  once  alters 
the  case,  for  then  we  have  the  same  conditions 
which  determine  the  explosion  of  a  mixture  of  the 
ordinary  illuminating  gas  with  air. 

The  two  gases  then  behave  in  nearly  the  same 
manner,  becoming  more  and  more  inflammable  as 
the  proportion  of  air  increases  until  the  mixture 
contains  about  one  part  of  gas  to  four  of  air,  when 
it  becomes  explosive. 

The  mixture  remains  explosive  until  the  proper- 


DANGERS   OF   ACETYLENE  II 

tions  are  one  of  gas  to  twenty  of  air,  after  which  the 
dilution  is  too  great  for  the  propagation  of  flame. 

In  each  stage  the  acetylene  mixture  is  somewhat 
more  dangerous  than  the  house-gas  mixture,  simply 
because  its  explosion  in  each  case  is  rather  more 
violent.  With  a  properly  constructed  generator, 
however,  there  should  be  no  chance  for  the  ad- 
mixture of  air  with  the  gas  in  any  proportion,  no 
matter  how  small  and  apparently  harmless ;  and, 
since  many  generators  obviate  entirely  the  admis- 
sion of  air  to  the  system  at  the  same  time  that  they 
fulfil  all  the  other  requirements  of  successful  gas- 
production,  there  can  be  no  excuse  for  taking  the 
slightest  risk  on  this  point. 

ACETYLIDE   OF  COPPER. 

The  presence  of  ammonia  in  the  gas  favors  the 
formation  in  the  gas  fixtures  of  this  explosive  salt. 
Well-washed  gas  should  not  combine  with  the  small 
proportion  of  copper  found  in  the  ordinary  fixtures. 
The  substance  is  not  easy  to  make,  even  in  the  lab- 
oratory, and  the  amount  which  could  by  any  chance 
form  in  the  fixtures  is  very  small. 

The  use  of  copper  should,  of  course,  be  debarred 
for  any  part  of  the  system,  and  especially  for  the 
generator  or  gasometer. 

TOXIC   PROPERTIES. 

A  most  elaborate  series  of  experiments  conducted 
in  France  upon  men  and  various  lower  animals  has 
shown  conclusively  that  acetylene  is  slightly  less 


12  LIGHTING  BY   ACETYLENE 

poisonous  than  the  ordinary  coal-gas  in  general 
use. 

In  experimenting  upon  dogs,  it  was  found  that, 
when  the  animals  were  removed  from  the  influence 
of  acetylene  before  they  had  been  fatally  poisoned, 
recovery  was  more  rapid  than  when  they  were  sub- 
jected to  the  effects  of  ordinary  illuminating  gas  un- 
der the  same  conditions.  An  examination  of  blood 
samples  taken  every  few  moments  showed  that  acet- 
ylene was  rapidly  eliminated  from  the  system. 

It  was  also  found  that  fatal  results  were  not  pro- 
duced by  the  prolonged  inhalation  of  acetylene  and 
air  mixtures  unless  the  gas  existed  in  the  propor- 
tion of  more  than  twenty  per  cent. 

The  author  may  say  that,  while  he  is  unusually 
susceptible  to  the  effects  generally  produced  by  in- 
haling noxious  gases,  he  has  experienced  no  incon- 
venience whatsoever  from  breathing  day  after  day 
an  atmosphere  rich  in  acetylene. 

The  danger  to  be  apprehended  from  leaving  the 
tap  of  a  burner  carelessly  turned  on  is  too  remote 
to  require  serious  consideration,  since  the  leakage 
of  half  a  foot  of  acetylene  an  hour  would  require,  in 
an  air-tight  room  eight  feet  square  by  eight  feet 
high,  fifty  hours  to  produce  a  mixture  of  only  five 
per  cent,  of  gas. 

The  odor  of  acetylene  is  so  peculiar  that  a  very 
small  leak  is  quickly  noticeable.  The  odor,  which 
is  quite  indescribable,  is  decidedly  unpleasant,  re- 
minding one  somewhat  of  garlic,  or  onions. 

The  products  of  the  perfect  combustion  of  acety- 


DANGERS    OF   ACETYLENE  13 

lene  consist  solely  of  vapor,  of  water,  and  carbonic 
acid.  '  In  the  case  of  incomplete  combustion,  in 
addition  to  these  products,  carbon  monoxide,  car- 
bon, and  hydrogen  are  produced. 

The  latter  statement  is  equally  true  of  any  of  the 
combustible  illuminants,  but  the  amount  of  carbon 
monoxide  given  off  from  the  acetylene  flame  of  the 
standard  burner  will  be  only  one-tenth  part  of  that 
from  ordinary  gas. 

Experiments  similar  to  those  mentioned  above 
have  shown  that  animals  are  affected  in  about  the 
same  degree  by  inhaling  the  products  from  the  com- 
bustion of  equal  quantities  of  acetylene  and  illumi- 
nating gas. 

In  the  case  of  neither  gas  need  any  fear  be  enter- 
tained of  the  effects  of  inhaling  the  products  of 
combustion  of  burners  used  for  lighting.  Cases  of 
injury  from  this  cause  have  happened,  indeed,  with 
illuminating  gas,  but  only  when  used  in  large  quan- 
tities, for  heating,  in  a  gas  stove  without  proper 
provision  for  ventilation. 

EFFECTS   UPON   THE   EYES. 

When  the  incandescent  electric  lamp  came  into 
use  there  was  a  general  complaint  that  it  "hurt  the 
eyes."  Later,  the  Welsbach  mantle  suffered  under 
the  same  imputation. 

One  rarely  hears  either  blamed  for  eye  injuries  at 
the  present  day, 

The  intensely  bright  light  of  acetylene  will  cer- 


14  LIGHTING   BY    ACETYLENE 

tainly  be  more  than  either  of  the  others  the  object 
of  a  similar  complaint. 

A  careful  observation  of  the  advent  of  all  these 
lights  has  led  the  author  to  believe  that,  so  long  as 
a  light  is  a  novelty,  and  so  long  as  individuals, 
prompted  by  curiosity,  continue  to  look  directly  at 
the  flame  or  other  source  of  light,  they  will  quite 
naturally  be  temporarily  dazzled  and  partially 
blinded. 

As  soon  as  the  novelty  wears  off  and  they  are 
content  to  look  at  the  objects  illuminated,  the  com- 
plaint ceases  to  be  heard. 

Man  for  some  thousands  of  years  has  had  for  his 
type  of  light  the  sun,  and  it  is  without  doubt  true 
that  the  sunlight  is  yellow.  He  takes  most  kindly  to 
a  yellow  light,  which  is  the  reason  the  electric  arc  is 
so  unpleasant,  with  its  bluish  tint  and  moonlight 
effect,  and  also  the  reason  that  the  Wellsbach  seems 
green  to  most  of  us.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  acety- 
lene flame  is  very  like  sunlight,  and  its  effect  on  the 
eyes  cannot  but  be  beneficial,  on  account  of  its 
perfect  steadiness. 

The  only  disagreeable  feature  is,  that  from  its 
small  size,  it  casts  a  rather  sharp  shadow,  which 
makes  it  unpleasant  when  burned  without  a  diffusing 
globe  or  shade. 


ELECTRIC  FURNACES 

EVER  since  the  beginnings  of  chemistry,  the  fol. 
lowers  of  that  science  have  sought  means  for  pro- 
ducing intense  heat. 

A  charcoal  fire  urged  by  bellows  or  an  alcohol 
flame  intensified  by  the  blowpipe,  was  used  for  this 
purpose  by  the  early  experimenters. 

Then  came,  with  the  advent  of  illuminating  gas, 
the  Bunsen  burner  and  the  blast  lamp  in  various 
forms  as  an  important  step  in  advance,  and  finally 
the  oxy-hydrogen  jet  with  which  platinum  and  irid- 
ium  could  be  fused. 

Each  improvement  led  to  increased  knowledge  of 
the  more  refractory  substances,  but  investigators 
still  longed  for  a  source  of  heat,  which  not  only 
would  be  more  intense,  but  which  should  be  free 
from  the  disadvantages  of  a  highly  oxygenated  flame. 
The  extreme  temperature  of  the  electric  arc  had 
long  been  known  and  had  been  utilized  in  a  small 
way  in  researches  upon  refractory  materials  in  con- 
junction with  spectroscopic  analysis.  During  the 
past  few  years,  however,  the  production  of  electric 
currents  of  immense  quantity  has  become  an  estab- 
lished industry,  and  it  has  been  possible  to  so  mag- 
nify the  small  arcs  of  a  decade  ago,  that  an  entirely 
new  and  most  important  piece  of  apparatus  has  been 

15 


10  LIGHTING  BY   ACETYLENE 

developed.  The  result  is  seen  in  the  electric  fur- 
nace, which  may  vary  in  size  from  a  small  crucible, 
in  which  is  maintained  the  arc  of  an  ordinary  street 
light,  to  those  huge  creations  of  the  carbide  works, 
where  a  thousand  horse  power  of  energy  is  con- 
verted into  the  sun-like  radiance  which  fills  the  space 
between  the  carbons. 

The  electric  furnace  consists,  in  its  simplest  form, 
of  a  crucible  of  refractory  material,  within  which  an 
electric  arc  may  be  maintained  between  the  ends  of 
two  carbon  electrodes,  which  enter  the  crucible  for 
that  purpose. 


FIG.  i.    Siemens  Furnace. 


FIG.  2.     Moissan  Furnace. 


The  substance  to  be  treated,  generally  in  the  form 
of  grains,  or  in  powder,  is  placed  in  the  crucible  in 
such  position  that  it  may  be  traversed  by  the  elec- 
tric arc,  to  whose  intense  heat  it  is  subjected.  The 
electrodes  are  sometimes  placed  in  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion, sometimes  vertically,  and,  again,  inclined. 

When   horizontal,  they   may  enter  the    crucible 


ELECTRIC   FURNACES  I/ 

through  holes  in  its  wall,  or  the  crucible  may  be  so 
shallow  that  they  pass  over  its  upper  edge. 

When  vertical,  the  lower  electrode  may  enter  the 
bottom  of  the  crucible  through  a  hole,  or  may  con- 
sist simply  of  a  block  of  carbon  laid  on  the  bottom, 
or  the  bottom  of  the  crucible,  or  the  crucible  may 
itself  be  the  electrode,  provided  it  is  a  conduct- 
or of  the  current,  while  the  other  electrode  de- 


FIG.  3.     Moissan  Furnace. 

scends  through  a  hole  in  the  cover  when  a  closed 
crucible  is  used,  or  is  guided  centrally  of  the  cru- 
cible by  external  mechanism  in  the  case  of  an  open 
furnace. 

The  Siemens  furnace,  Fig.  i,  has  a  graphite 
crucible  embedded  in  a  mass  of  refractory  material 
intended  to  prevent  radiation.  The  crucible  forms 
the  lower  electrode.  There  is  a  vent  for  the  gases. 


18 


LIGHTING   BY    ACETYLENE 


The  upper  electrode  is  operated  by  a  magnified  arc- 
lamp  mechanism. 


FlG.  4.     Willson's  Furnace. 

The  first  Moissan  furnace.  Fig.  2,  has  horizon- 
tal electrodes  manoeuvred  by  hand.  The  crucible  is 
so  shallow  that  the  electrodes  pass  over  its  upper 
edge. 


ELECTRIC   FURNACES 


The  second  form  of  Moissan  furnance,  Fig 

3,  is  like  the  first  except  that  a  hole  is  cut  at  right 
angles  to  the  electrodes  entirely  through  the  fur- 
nace, near  the  bottom  of  the  crucible.  By  inclining 


FIG.  5.     King  Furnace. 

the  furnace,  it  may  be  made  continuous  in  action. 
The  charge  is  fed  in  at  the  upper  end  of  the  cross- 
hole,  and,  after  passing  through  the  crucible,  the 
product  issues  at  the  other  side. 

Willson's  furnance,  Fig.  4,  has  an  outer  casing 


20  LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 

of  brick  (A),  a  crucible  of  carbon  (B),  a  lower  elec- 
trode of  broken  carbon,  an  upper  electrode  (C),  with 
a  wheel  and  screw  h,  g,  for  moving  it,  a  tap-hole  (D), 
and  an  iron  base-plate,  to  which  one  pole  of  the 
generator  is  connected. 

The  King  furnace,  used  at  the  carbide  works  at 
Niagara,  N.  Y.,  is  on  a  more  elaborate  plan,  although 
the  additions  to  its  mechanism  are  of  importance 
only  in  giving  ease  of  charging  and  removing  the 
product.  The  crucible  is  contained  in  a  small  iron 
car,  which  may  be  run  out  on  a  track  when  desired 
and  another  substituted  for  it  without  loss  of  time. 
Suitable  chutes  allow  the  lime  and  coke  mixture 
used  for  making  the  calcic  carbide  to  be  delivered 
to  the  furnace  ;  flues  carry  off  the  gases  of  combus- 
tion. The  car  carrying  the  crucible  is  given  a 
backward  and  forward  motion  during  the  action  of 
the  current,  in  order  to  distribute  the  contents  and 
to  make  the  action  of  the  arc  uniform.  The  upper 
electrode  is  formed  of  a  number  of  carbons  clamped 
into  a  massive  connector. 

King  &  Wyatt  have  patented  a  process  for  form- 
ing calcium  carbide,  in  which,  in  lieu  of  an  electric 
furnace,  the  mixture  of  lime  and  coke  is  placed  in 
a  heap  on  an  iron  plate  which  rests  on  the  ground 
and  forms  the  lower  electrode.  The  upper  electrode 
is  supported  on  a  light  crane  and  is  lowered  down 
through  the  centre  of  the  pile. 

The  carbide  forms  as  a  nugget  in  the  centre  of 
the  mixture,  from  which  it  is  removed  by  means  of 
a  pair  of  tongs. 


ELECTRIC   FURNACES 


21 


Some  furnaces   are  provided    with  movable  bot- 
toms for  dumping  the  charge.     Others  have  a  tap- 


FIG.  6.     Bullier  Furnace. 


hole  for  drawing  off  the  molten  carbide,  but  the 
best  practice  seems  to  consist  in  starting  the  furnace 
with  the  arc  at  the  bottom,  raising  the  electrode 


22 


LIGHTING  BY  ACETYLENE 


from  time  to  time,  and  allowing  the  carbide  to  build 
up  in  the  shape  of  a  block  until  a  considerable 
thickness  is  obtained.  The  current  is  then  shut  off, 
the  upper  electrode  drawn  out  of  the  furnace,  and 


Furnace  used  at  Spray. 


the  crucible  removed  for  cooling,  while  a  fresh  one 
is  put  in  place  and  the  electrode  lowered. 

The  Bulller  furnace.  Fig.  6,  is  one  having  a 
dumping  bottom.  The  sides  are  vertical,  of  fire- 
clay. The  iron  bottom  serves  as  the  lower  electrode. 
The  upper  electrode  is,  as  usual,  of  carbon,  which 


ELECTRIC   FURNACES 


FIG.  8.     Pictet  Furnace. 

penetrates  the  centre  of  the  mass  of  lime  and  carbon 
contained  in  the  furnace.  As  it  is  raised,  there  is 
formed  about  its  end  a  cavity,  into  which  the  con- 
tents of  the  furnace  fall,  little  by  little.  The  block 


24  LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 

of  carbide,  which  occupies  the  centre  of  the  mass  at 
the  end  of  the  reaction,  is  dropped  into  a  car  by 
opening  the  bottom  of  the  furnace. 

The  furnaces  used  in  the  carbide  works  at  SPRAY, 
Fig.  7,  are  of  the  Willson  type,  but  are  double,  and 
are  covered  by  an  arched  flue,  through  which  the 
gases  escape.  The  carbons  are  composed  of  six 
blocks,  each  four  inches  square  and  a  yard  long, 
held  in  a  clamping  head  and  bound  together  by  an 
iron  sheath.  In  this  arrangement,  each  furnace 
must  be  allowed  to  cool  before  the  calcium  carbide 
is  removed. 

M.  Raoul  Pictet  has  proposed  a  furnace,  Fig.  8, 
in  which  the  mixture  of  lime  and  coke  is  acted  on, 
first,  by  a  current  of  heated  air  at  D,  then  by  an 
oxy-hydrogen  flame,  G,  as  it  reaches  a  lower  level, 
and  finally  by  the  electrodes  I,  I,  which  melt  the 
carbide.  A  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  furnace  allows 
the  product  to  drop  through  into  a  receptacle,  L. 

This  is,  apparently,  an  unsatisfactory  method,  be- 
cause the  coke  must  be  in  excess  in  order  to  com- 
pensate for  that  burned  out  of  the  mixture,  and  the 
ash  which  results  from  the  combustion  materially 
interferes  with  the  proper  formation  of  the  carbide. 

Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  produce  a 
continuous  furnace,  but,  as  yet,  with  unpromising 
results. 

The  continuous  process  would  certainly  be  a  gain 
in  the  economical  production  of  carbide,  if  it  could 
be  made  to  work  successfully. 

A  small  portion  only  of  the  coke  and  lime  would 


ELECTRIC   FURNACES  2$ 

be  under  action  at  a  time,  which,  as  soon  as  con- 
verted, would  be  automatically  removed  from  the 
furnace  ;  the  necessity  of  maintaining  the  mass  of 
carbide  at  a  high  temperature  until  all  was  con- 
verted  would  be  obviated,  and  the  loss  of  time  in  re- 
charging furnaces  and  waiting  for  the  carbide  to 
cool  would  be  avoided. 


A  CONTINUOUS  ELECTRIC  FURNACE 

SINCE  the  foregoing  chapter  was  written.  Mr.  C. 
S.  Bradley,  of  New  York,  has  patented  a  continu- 
ously-acting electric  furnace,  which  seems  to  satisfy 
perfectly  the  conditions  of  uninterrupted  carbide 
production. 

The  description  of  this  furnace  (Figs.  9  and  10), 
and  its  operation  is  taken  from  the  patent  specifica- 
tion at  considerable  length,  because,  in  a  general 
way,  it  is  an  excellent  account  of  the  manner  in 
which  carbide  is  produced  : 

"  The  object  of  the  invention  is  to  permit  a  con- 
tinuous and  uninterrupted  operation  of  the  furnace, 
and  withdrawal  of  the  product,  and  to  protect  said 
product  from  the  action  of  the  air  when  at  a  high 
temperature. 

"  The  furnace  is  especially  designed  for  employ- 
ment in  the  manufacture  of  metallic  carbides.  It 
comprises  a  receptacle  for  the  charge  to  be  oper- 
ated upon,  in  which  it  inserts  an  electrode,  means 
being  provided  for  continuously  moving  the  recep- 
tacle with  relation  to  the  electrode  so  as  to  bring 
fresh  portions  of  material  under  the  action  of  the 
electric  current.  The  construction  which  it  is  pre- 
26 


A   CONTINUOUS  ELECTRIC   FURNACE  2? 

ferred  to  employ  comprises  a  rotary  wheel  or  annu- 
lus,  into  which  projects  at  one  side  an  electrode, 
and  provided  with  means  for  preventing  the  ma- 
terial from  spilling,  and  means  for  supplying  fresh 
material  to  be  acted  upon  by  the  current,  and  facil- 
ities for  removing  the  product,  the  whole  being  so 
arranged  that  the  operation  may  be  carried  on  in  an 
uninterrupted  manner,  the  furnace  constantly  form- 
ing fresh  additions  to  the  product  and  permitting 
the  latter  to  be  removed  as  frequently  as  may  be 
necessary.  The  wheel  is  preferably  turned  by 
power-driven  machinery,  and  is  provided  with  a 
hollow  periphery,  to  which  are  attached  over  an  arc 
covering  the  lower  part  of  the  wheel  buckets  form- 
ing throughout  said  arc  a  closed  receptacle  for  the 
material  to  be  operated  upon.  Said  buckets  are  ar- 
ranged to  be  withdrawn  or  opened  when  they  reach 
the  discharge-end  of  the  wheel-arc.  The  material, 
in  the  form  of  powder  or  granules,  is  supplied  to 
the  side  of  the  wheel  which  contains  the  electrode 
or  electrodes.  The  electric  arc,  or  the  limits  of  the 
space  within  which  the  electric  action  on  the  ma- 
terial takes  place,  are  wholly  within  the  mass  of 
pulverized  material,  so  that  a  wall  of  unchanged 
or  unconverted  material  will  surround  the  product 
of  the  furnace,  and  the  motion  of  the  wheel  in  such 
direction  as  to  surround  the  converted  material  by 
a  body  of  unconverted  material,  and  thus  exclude 
air  until  the  converted  mass  has  become  sufficiently 
cool  to  permit  its  removal  and  further  treatment  for 
packing  for  shipment  or  storage.  In  the  formation 


28 


LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 


FIG.  9. 


A   CONTINUOUS   ELECTRIC   FURNACE 


FIG.  10. 


30  LIGHTING  BY   ACETYLENE 

of  a  carbide  ot  calcium,  for  example,  an  intimate 
mixture  of  ground  lime  and  ground  carbon  is  sup- 
plied to  that  side  of  the  wheel-arc  into  which  the 
current  is  introduced,  and  is  fused,  permitting  the 
carbon  and  calcium  to  combine,  and  forming  a  pool 
of  liquid  carbide  of  calcium  within  the  wheel-rim, 
which  pool  is  surrounded  by  a  mass  of  uncombined 
mixed  carbon  and  lime,  which  acts  as  an  efficient 
heat-insulator,  keeping  the  walls  of  the  receptacle 
comparatively  cool.  As  the  wheel  turns,  the  pool  is 
withdrawn  from  the  neighborhood  of  the  electric 
arc,  or  region  of  electrical  activity,  and  the  liquid 
carbide  cools  and  solidifies  under  a  superincumbent 
and  surrounding  mass  of  material,  which  prevents 
access  of  air  and  thus  prevents  wasteful  consump- 
tion of  carbon  by  combustion.  Thus  a  core  of  solid 
carbide  of  calcium  is  formed  within  a  granular  or 
pulverized  mass  of  material,  said  core  growing  in 
length  as  the  receptacle  recedes  from  the  electrode 
until  it  emerges  from  the  other  end  of  the  wheel- 
arc,  when  the  removable  sections  of  the  wheel-rim 
may  be  taken  off  one  at  a  time,  permitting  the  pul- 
verized material  to  fall  away  from  the  solid  core  of 
carbide,  which  may  be  broken  off  or  otherwise  re- 
moved periodically.  Thus  the  formation  of  carbide 
goes  on  continuously  without  necessary  interruption 
for  recharging  or  removal  of  the  product. 

"  Fig.  9  is  a  sectional  view  on  a  plane  at  right 
angles  to  the  wheel-axis.  Fig.  10  is  a  sectional  view 
on  a  plane  parallel  to  the  wheel-axis. 

"  I  represents   a  wheel  formed    in   sections  and 


A   CONTINUOUS   ELECTRIC   FURNACE  3 1 

bolted  together,  and  having  a  horizontal  axis 
mounted  in  boxes  at  or  near  the  floor-level.  The 
rim  of  the  wheel  is  concave  in  cross-section,  and  is 
provided  at  intervals  with  pivoted  latches  (3,  3a)  to 
engage  studs  (4,  4a)  on  semi-cylindrical  sections  of 
plate-iron  (5)  to  support  them  on  the  wheel.  Auxili- 
ary plates  of  thin  sheet-iron  may  be  bent  around 
the  joint  between  the  sections  on  the  inside  of 
the  wheel-rim,  to  prevent  the  pulverized  material 
from  sifting  through  the  cracks  at  the  joints.  The 
wheel  may  with  advantage  be  made  about  fifteen 
feet  in  diameter,  and  the  rim  and  plate-iron  sections 
of  such  proportions  as  to  form  a  circular  receptacle 
of  thirty-six  inches  in  diameter.  The  inner  wall  of 
the  wheel-rim  is  provided  with  holes  at  intervals  to 
receive  copper  plugs  (6)  connecting  with  the  several 
plates  of  a  commutator  (7)  by  conductors  (6a),  on 
which  bears  a  brush  (8)  connecting  with  one  pole 
of  an  electric  generator  (9).  The  other  pole  of  the 
generator  connects  with  a  carbon  electrode  (10) 
about  four  inches  in  diameter  mounted  in  a  sleeve 
(11)  provided  with  a  screw-thread  on  the  outside, 
which  engages  an  internally  threaded  sleeve  (12) 
secured  to  a  bevel-gear  (13)  meshing  with  a  gear 
(14),  on  the  axis  of  which  is  a  crank  (15)  for  adjust- 
ing the  electrode.  The  electrode  and  its  regular 
ing  mechanism  are  mounted  on  a  framework  ad- 
jacent to  the  wheel-pit,  so  that  the  electrode  may 
be  fed  into  the  receptacle  formed  by  the  wheel-rim 
and  the  rim  sections  when  partly  consumed. 

"  16  is  a  feed-hopper  provided  with  a  spout  (17) 


32  LIGHTING  BY  ACETYLENE 

projecting  into  the  wheel-rim,  and  a  gate  (18)  for 
regulating  the  supply  of  mixed  material  to  be  acted 
upon. 

"The  wheel-pit  is  preferably  provided  with  sloping 
sides,  so  that  any  powdered  material  which  drops 
from  the  wheel,  at  its  discharging  end  or  elsewhere, 
may  slide  by  gravity  to  a  conveyer  (19),  the  buckets 
of  which  return  it  to  the  feed-hopper,  to  again  pass 
through  the  furnace. 

"  The  wheel  is  preferably  connected  with  an  elec- 
tric motor  by  speed-reducing  gearing.  Said  motor 
is  shown  diagrammatically  at  20.  The  motor- 
shaft  carries  a  worm  (21)  acting  on  a  spur-gear  (22), 
on  the  shaft  of  which  is  secured  a  worm  (23)  mesh- 
ing with  another  gear  (24),  on  the  shaft  of  which  is 
a  third  worm  (25)  meshing  with  a  gear  on  the  wheel- 
shaft.  By  this  mechanism,  a  very  slow  speed  of  the 
wheel  may  be  maintained,  a  complete  revolution 
being  made  once  in  five  days.  In  using  the  appa- 
ratus, the  rim-sections  are  latched  over  the  wheel-rim 
over  an  arc  covering  the  lower  part  of  the  wheel, 
and  the  gate  of  the  feed-hopper  is  opened.  A  charge 
of  intimately  mixed  pulverized  carbon  and  lime,  in 
proper  proportions  to  form  carbide  of  calcium,  falls 
into  the  receptacle  around  the  wheel-rim  and  accu- 
mulates until  the  top  of  the  electrode  is  immersed 
therein.  The  circuit  of  the  dynamo-electric  ma- 
chine may  then  be  closed  and  the  electric  motor 
thrown  into  operation.  As  the  charge  is  moved 
away  from  the  electrode,  intense  heat  is  created  and 
the  refractory  material  fuses,  forming  a  pool  of 


A   CONTINUOUS   ELECTRIC  FURNACE  33 

liquid  carbide  of  calcium,  or  other  compound,  de- 
pending on  the  nature  of  the  furnace-charge.  As 
the  wheel  turns,  the  pool  gradually  recedes  from  the 
electrode  and  slowly  cools  while  inclosed  within 
walls  of  refractory,  uncombined  material  on  all  sides, 
the  cool  product  forming  a  bottom  for  the  liquid 
compound.  Thus  a  continuous  core  of  the  product 
is  formed,  new  rim-sections  being  added  by  a  work- 
man at  intervals  of  a  few  hours.  The  electrode,  at 
starting,  should  project  well  into  the  receptacle,  and, 
as  the  wheel  turns,  the  electrode  rises  relatively  to 
the  charge,  and,  when  it  reaches  a  point  near  the 
top  of  the  rim-section,  a  new  rim-section  is  hung  on 
the  wheel  by  means  of  the  next  set  of  supports,  and 
a  strip  of  sheet-iron  is  bent  around  the  joint  between 
the  rim-sections.  The  gate  of  the  hopper  is  then 
opened  and  the  rim  filled,  or  partially  filled,  with 
material.  As  this  material  in  its  powdered  state  is 
a  very  poor  conductor  of  electricity  as  well  as  of 
heat,  the  immersion  of  the  electrode  does  not  inter- 
fere with  the  heating  action.  When  a  new  rim-sec- 
tion is  added  on  the  electrode  side  of  the  wheel,  one 
is  removed  at  the  other  side.  Thus  the  process 
continues  until  the  solid  core  of  the  furnace  product 
appears  at  the  discharge-end  'of  the  wheel,  when  a 
rim-section  is  taken  off  and  the  powdered  material 
falls  into  the  pit,  leaving  a  pillar  of  solid  product 
projecting  vertically,  which  may  be  broken  off  or 
otherwise  removed.  Solid  carbide  of  calcium  is  a 
conductor  of  electricity,  and  the  copper  plugs  make 
a  good  contact  with  the  same,  thereby  constituting 


34  LIGHTING  BY   ACETYLENE 

the  carbide  itself  one  of  the  electrodes.  The  action 
of  the  commutator  leads  the  current  to  a  point  of 
the  carbide  core  close  to  the  electrode,  and  thereby 
prevents  unnecessary  resistance,  which  would  inter- 
vene if  the  plugs  were  more  widely  spaced.  The 
conducting  plugs  (6),  which  are  remote  from  the  arc, 
help  to  carry  the  current,  and  thus  heating  of  any 
one  contact  with  the  carbide  core  is  reduced.' 


GENERATION  OF  ACETYLENE 

THE  calcium  carbide  of  commerce  comes  to  us  in 
air-tight  cans  of  various  sizes.  The  usual  pack- 
age holds  either  fifty  or  one  hundred  pounds.  Upon 
opening  the  can,  we  find  a  heavy,  dark-colored, 
stone-like  substance  in  lumps  of  various  sizes.  The 
largest  pieces  are  the  size  of  one's  fist,  while  the 
smallest  are  in  the  form  of  grains  broken  from  the 
larger  pieces  in  shipment  and  travel.  The  specific 
gravity  of  calcic  carbide  is  2.22.  Its  fracture  presents 
a  crystalline  surface  like  that  of  broken  cast-iron,  but 
almost  immediately  loses  its  lustre  when  exposed  to 
the  air,  becoming  covered  with  a  film  of  lime. 

Upon  dropping  into  a  tumbler  of  water  a  piece  of 
the  carbide  as  large  as  a  hickory-nut,  a  surprisingly 
violent  reaction  takes  place.  Acetylene  is  rapidly 
generated  at  the  surface  of  the  carbide,  and,  rising 
in  the  form  of  bubbles,  throws  the  water  into  violent 
ebullition.  A  considerable  amount  of  heat  is  lib- 
erated at  the  surface  of  reaction,  which  may  boil 
the  water  in  the  tumbler  if  the  piece  of  carbide  is 
large. 

The  whole  mass  of  liquid,  which  is  rapidly 
whitened  by  the  lime  set  free,  is  in  such  violent 
commotion  and  is  sosoujft/bythe  issuing  gas  that 
many  bubbles  carry  away  sufficient  heat  to  break  as 

35 


36  LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 

little  puffs  of  steam  before  the  water  has  reached  the 
boiling-point.  The  issuance  of  steam  must  not,  how- 
ever, be  confounded  with  the  appearance  of  the  first 
bubbles  which  arise,  and  which  being  charged  with 
finely  divided  lime  give  off  a  white  dust  which  looks 
much  like  condensed  steam.  If  this  experiment  is 
repeated  upon  a  larger  scale,  with  several  pounds 
of  carbide  and  a  pailful  of  water,  the  phenomena  are 
more  striking.  In  this  case  the  nature  of  the  vapor, 
which  rises  soon  after  the  reaction  begins,  may  be 
discovered  by  noting  that  it  does  not  disappear  like 
steam,  and  it  will  be  found,  upon  putting  the  hand 
into  the  bubbling  water,  that  the  liquid  which  seems 
to  be  boiling  is  quite  cold. 

The  violence  of  the  reaction  is  surprising,  even 
after  seeing  it  many  times.  The  water  during  the 
reduction  of  the  carbide  is  in  a  state  of  the  most  vio- 
lent commotion.  Bubbles  rise  in  great  masses  to 
the  surface  of  the  liquid,  but  there  instead  of  burst- 
ing, as  one  might  expect,  they  roll  over  and  over 
among  themselves,  and  seem  to  the  eye  to  go  down 
again  into  the  places  whence  they  came.  As  the 
carbide  is  exhausted  there  is  a  gradually  lessening 
disturbance  of  the  water  until  the  end  of  the  reac- 
tion, when  a  thin  stream  of  individual  bubbles  rises 
to  the  surface  where  each  may  be  seen  to  break  in 
the  way  one  might  expect. 

The  water,  after  the  reaction  has  ceased,  is  left 
white  and  thick  with  lime,  which  gradually  settles 
to  the  bottom  of  the  containing  vessel.  If  the  water 
is  then  decanted  the  lime  remains  in  the  form  of  a 


GENERATION   OF  ACETYLENE  37 

semi-fluid  paste,  which  flows  easily.  A  few  pieces 
of  impure  carbide,  together  with  an  occasional  nod- 
ule of  glistening  carbides  and  silicides  of  various 
metals  may  be  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  fluid. 
The  latter  are  formed  in  the  electric  furnace  from 
the  various  impurities  contained  in  the  lime  and 
coke. 

When  calcium  carbide  and  water  are  brought  to- 
gether, a  very  simple  mutual  disintegration  takes 
place.  The  reaction  results  in  two  new  substances, 
namely  hydrated  lime  and  acetylene. 

Chemically  expressed  the  formula  is: 
CaC2     +       2H2O      =      CaOHaO       +       C2H2 

Calcium  carbide    2  molecules  of  water  Hydrated  lime  Acetylene 

Considering  the  molecular  weights  : 

CaC2    +    2(H20)     =        CaOH20         +    C2H3 

40+24        2(2  +  16)        40+16+2+16        24+2 
and  reducing  these  to  decimal  relation  we  find 
CaC,     +         2H20    =  CaOH20    +       C2H2 

62.5  +  37-5  56.25     =     115.625     +      40.625 

100  pounds     +     56.25     —     115.625     +     5.81  cu.  ft. 

calcic  carbide  water  slaked  lime  acetylene 

A  certain  quantity  of  heat  is  set  free  during  the 
generation  of  acetylene,  which  in  the  method  de- 
scribed is  manifested  by  a  rise  in  the  temperature  of 
the  water  into  which  the  carbide  is  dropped. 

A  more  striking  way  in  which  to  show  the  libera- 
tion of  heat  that  attends  the  decomposition  of  cal- 
cium carbide,  is  to  dip  a  small  piece,  held  between 
the  thumb  and  finger,  into  water  and  then  to  quickly 
withdraw  it  therefrom.  As  the  moisture  reduces 


38  LIGHTING  BY   ACETYLENE 

the  carbide,  the  temperature  rises  to  such  a  degree 
that  the  piece  must  soon  be  dropped.  When  water 
is  supplied  to  a  considerable  portion  of  calcic  car- 
bide, drop  by  drop,  or  in  such  small  quantity  that  the 
carbide  is  not  wholly  submerged,  the  temperature 
of  the  inner  portions  of  the  mass  may  rise  several 
hundred  degrees,  even  reaching  a  red  heat.  If  a 
wooden  pail  is  filled  with  carbide  and  a  small  quan- 
tity of  water  poured  on  the  mass,  the  pail  may  take 
fire  after  an  hour  or  more. 

Under  these  conditions  the  acetylene  is  given  off 
with  clouds  of  steam  and  vapor,  the  gas  has  a  strong 
odor  of  ammonia,  and  the  reaction  seems  more  vio- 
lent than  in  the  case  where  the  water  was  in  excess. 

The  total  amount  of  heat  liberated  is  of  course 
the  same  in  each  case,  provided  equal  weights  of 
carbide  are  used  ;  but  in  the  first  instance  the  water 
which  surrounds  the  carbide  is  put  into  violent  mo- 
tion by  the  rising  gas,  so  that  every  ounce  of  it  is 
successively  brought  into  contact  alternately  with 
the  carbide  and  with  the  walls  of  the  containing  ves- 
sel, where  its  heat  may  be  conducted  away.  Besides 
this,  the  specific  heat  of  water  is  so  great,  that  its 
temperature  is  raised  less  than  that  of  other  bodies 
by  the  same  cause. 

So  long  as  the  carbide  is  surrounded  by  freely 
moving  water,  it  is  doubtful  if  its  temperature  could 
rise  to  a  point  at  which  the  gas  would  be  decom- 
posed, for  water  at  the  boiling-point  has  remarkable 
heat-absorbing  capacity,  provided  its  circulation  is 
maintained. 


GENERATION   OF   ACETYLENE  39 

When  the  carbide  is  in  excess,  however,  the  water 
which  is  supplied  forms  a  paste  with  the  reduced 
lime,  and  surrounds  the  carbide  with  a  non-conduct- 
ing  coating.  The  issuing  gas  affords  the  only  exit 
for  the  heat,  and  not  only  comes  off  at  a  high  tern- 
perature,  but  is  often  partly  decomposed  while  the 
unreduced  carbide  increases  constantly  in  tempera- 
ture. 

Moissan  has  shown  that  when  the  liberation  of 
acetylene  is  attended  by  a  considerable  rise  of  tern- 
perature  the  gas  is  partly  decomposed  into  sub- 
stances having  a  similar  structure,  known  as  poly- 
mers, such  as  benzine,  styrolene,  anthracene,  tar  and 
naphthalene. 

Acetylene  is  then  said  to  polymerize,  and  the  gas 
is  partly  changed  into  benzine  vapor.  If  the  tern- 
perature  rises  still  further  the  elements  of  the  gas 
are  separated ;  hydrogen  is  given  off,  and  carbon,  in 
a  state  of  fine  powder,  is  set  free. 

The  simplicity  of  the  process  of  making  acetylene 
from  carbide  would  lead  one  to  suppose  that  the 
construction  of  a  generator  for  supplying  the  gas  in 
the  quantities  required  for  lighting  buildings  would 
be  an  easy  matter.  Such,  however,  is  not  the  case, 
and  indeed  so  great  are  the  difficulties  encountered 
in  producing  a  generator  which  may  be  depended 
upon  for  an  unfailing  and  uniform  supply  of  pure 
gas,  that  although  hundreds,  nay  thousands,  have 
labored  upon  the  problem,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  to- 
day not  a  single  generator  can  be  purchased  which 
may  be  called  a  perfect  apparatus. 


4O  LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 

The  conditions  to  be  satisfied  in  an  ideal  generator 
are  as  follows : 

First—  Safety : 

A — From  explosion  of  confined  gas  due  to  pres- 
ence within  a  closed  generator. 

B — From  fire  risks. 

Second — Economy : 

A — In  the  yield  of  gas,  whereby  the  maximum 
output  of  acetylene  is  obtained  from  each  pound  of 
carbide,  and  where  all  waste  in  using  or  recharging 
the  generator  is  avoided. 

B — In  the  production  of  a  pure  gas  free  from  poly- 
mers or  other  products  of  decomposition,  which 
lower  the  candle-power  per  cubic  foot. 

Third — Ease  of  management:  simplicity. 

Fourth — Non-liability  of  the  apparatus  to  get  out 
of  order  when  put  in  the  care  of  unskilled  per- 
sons. 

The  construction  of  a  generator  possessing  in  full 
all  these  requirements  is  a  difficult  matter.  So  far  as 
is  known  it  has  not  been  done.  It  is  proposed  to 
discuss  the  problem  point  by  point,  but  it  will  first 
be  necessary  to  describe  the  lines  along  which  ex- 
periments have  progressed  and  upon  which  existing 
generators  have  been  built. 

Acetylene  has  hitherto  been  made  by  either  the 
"  dry  process  "  or  the  "  wet  process." 


THE  DRY  PROCESS  GENERATOR 

In  the  "dry  process"  generators  a  large  quantity 
of  calcium  carbide  is  placed  within  a  gas-tight  reser- 
voir where  it  is  automatically  sprinkled  with  small 
successive  charges  of  water,  the  intention  being 
that  the  addition  of  water  shall  be  proportional  to 
the  yield  of  gas. 

Generators  built  upon  this  plan  consist  usually  of 
a  separate  generator  and  gas-holder,  so  arranged 
that  at  each  downward  movement  of  the  gas-hold- 
ing bell  a  small  quantity  of  water  will  be  admitted 
to  the  generators  in  which  it  will  fall  in  small 
streams  upon  the  carbide  contained  therein. 

A  typical  generator  of  this  class  is  shown  on  the 
page  following. 

The  generator  proper,  A,  is  an  iron  box  closed  by 
a  gas-tight  door.  Within  it  is  a  pan  for  holding  the 
carbide,  B,  and  a  sprinkler,  C,  fed  with  water 
through  the  pipe,  D,  and  cock,  I,  from  the  tank,  J. 

The  generator  is  surrounded  by  a  bath  of  cold 
water,  E,  which  contains  a  coil  of  pipe  for  cooling 
the  gas  on  its  way  to  the  gas-holder,  L. 

A  safety-pipe,  T,  leads  to  a  water-seal,  G,  which 
relieves  any  accidental  rise  of  pressure  of  gas  in  the 
generator,  and  also  serves  as  an  escape  for  the 
water  which  is  condensed  upon  the  cool  walls  of 
the  generator. 

The  gas,  after  passing  through  the  cooling-coil,  is 

41 


LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 


washed  by  bubbling  up  through  the  water  in  the 
washer,  S,  and  thence  flows  down  to  the  three-way- 
cock,  H,  where  any  moisture  it  contains  is  drained 
off  to  the  safety-seal,  G,  by  the  pipe,  V.  This  pipe 
acts  in  emergencies  as  a  safety  vent  as  well  as  a 
draining  pipe,  and  should  be  of  ample  size.  From 
the  cock,  H,  the  gas  passes  to  the  bell,  L,  of  the 
gas-holder.  Thence,  it  is  taken  to  the  burners  by 
way  of  delivery-pipe,  M,  past  the  drainage-tube,  U, 
through  the  dryer  and  filter. 

The  cock,  I,  is  normally  held  shut  by  a  spring, 
but  is  opened  by  the  pressure  of  a  finger,  W,  pro- 
jecting from  the  bell  when  the  latter  sinks  to  a 
predetermined  point. 


THE  DRY  PROCESS  GENERATOR         43 

In  some  dry  generators,  such  as  that  of  Dicker- 
son  (Fig.  21),  there  is  an  arrangement  whereby  the 
quantity  of  water  entering  the  generator  is  definitely 
measured  at  each  descent  of  the  gas-holder  bell.  In 
the  "  Niagara"  generator,  a  "  tip-tank"  is  used. 
This  fills  with  water  from  a  constant  source,  and  at 
each  descent  of  the  bell  is  emptied  into  the  gene- 
rator. 

The  gas-holder  should  be  provided  with  separate 
inlet  and  outlet  pipes.  Moisture  is  carried  into  the 
house-piping  when  one  pipe  is  made  to  answer  both 
functions.  Either  pipe  may  be  made,  however,  to 
act  as  a  guide  to  the  bell,  or  the  safety-pipe  may  be 
used  for  this  purpose.  Some  prefer  to  have  an  in- 
dependent guide  consisting  of  a  central  rod  or  of  a 
pair  of  rods — one  at  each  side  of  the  bell,  as  in  Figs. 
38  and  26. 

The  gas-holder  should  be  provided  with  a  safety 
pipe,  which  telescopes  into  a  larger  tube  carried 
by  the  bell.  When  the  bell  is  so  full  of  gas  that  the 
orifices  near  the  lower  end  of  the  outer  tube  have 
risen  to  the  surface  of  the  water  contained  in  the 
gas-holder,  any  further  supply  enters  these  holes 
and  is  carried  to  the  seal  G  and  thence  to  the  outer 
air,  where  it  is  discharged.  The  gas  on  its  way  to 
the  burners  should  pass  through  a  dryer,  in  order 
that  moisture  may  not  be  carried  into  the  filter  nor 
into  the  house-pipes,  where  it  may  condense  and 
give  trouble  by  cutting  off  the  supply  of  acetylene, 
or  may  freeze  and  burst  the  pipes. 

A  filter  is  shown  at  Q,  consisting  of  a  cylinder  of 


44  LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 

loosely  woven  but  thick  fabric,  through  which  the 
gas  passes. 

This  is  a  really  necessary  attachment,  although 
rarely  used.  Without  it  the  finely  divided  lime, 
which  always  comes  into  the  gas-holder  with  the 
acetylene,  gives  trouble  by  entering  the  house-mains 
and  eventually  clogging  the  burners.  Indeed  this  is 
the  principal  cause  of  burner  stoppages,  and  for  this 
reason  it  is  also  advisable  to  insert  into  the  base  of 
each  jet  a  small  pledget  of  cotton  as  an  additional 
filter. 

In  a  plant  installed  by  the  author,  ten  per  cent,  of 
the  hundred  burners  used  needed  cleaning  daily, 
until  these  filters  were  used,  since  which  time  none 
has  shown  signs  of  clogging. 

In  order  to  make  clear  the  other  difficulties  which 
may  arise  with  this  class  of  generator,  even  the  ideal 
one  figured  herewith,  they  will  be  described  in  detail. 

Beginning  at  the  reservoir,  J,  the  water-supply 
may  fail.  This  may  be  avoided  by  connection 
through  a  ball-valve  with  the  town  supply,  whereby 
the  level  is  kept  constant. 

The  cock,  I,  which  is  held  shut  by  a  spring,  may 
fail  to  close  or  may  leak,  causing  a  waste  of  gas. 
The  remedy  for  this  is  to  use  a  "  tip-tank  "  or  a 
measuring  cock  as  in  Fig.  n. 

The  cooling  coil  may  clog  with  lime  or  the  prod- 
ucts of  polymerization.  In  that  case  gas  wastes 
through  the  safety-seal,  G.  The  cure  is  a  large  coil 
easy  of  access  for  cleaning.  Means  for  flushing  the 
coil  with  water  might  be  devised. 


THE   DRY   PROCESS   GENERATOR  45 

The  three-way  cock  may  leak  or  become  clogged. 
If,  however,  the  seal,  S,  is  so  arranged  that  it  cannot 
become  dry,  the  cock  may  be  discarded.  The  seal, 
however,  introduces  another  difficulty. 

When  the  gas  bubbles  violently  through  the  seal 
a  rhythmic  disturbance  is  set  up  in  the  gas-holder 
which  makes  the  lights  near  the  generator  flicker, 
and  sometimes  is  violent  enough  to  extinguish  them. 
If  the  seal  is  abandoned  the  three-way  cock,  or  its 
equivalent,  must  be  retained,  and  vice  versa. 

The  retort  cannot  be  entirely  filled  with  carbide. 
Consequently  at  each  charging  a  quantity  of  gas  es- 
capes when  its  door  is  opened  and  an  equal  quantity 
of  air  is  shut  up  in  the  generator  each  time  the  door 
is  closed. 

The  issuance  of  gas  is  an  element  of  danger,  al- 
though not  a  great  one  when  the  generator  is  intel- 
ligently managed.  The  entrance  of  air,  however, 
lowers  the  candle-power  of  the  gas,  and  may  be  suf- 
ficient in  quantity  to  produce  an  explosive  mixture 
in  the  bell. 

It  certainly  does  produce  an  explosive  compound 
in  the  generator,  but  the  fear  that  the  heating  of  the 
carbide,  which  attends  the  production  of  gas  in  this 
type  of  machine,  may  ignite  the  mixture,  is  probably 
groundless. 

The  yield  of  gas  from  freshly  introduced  carbide 
is  so  rapid,  that  the  air  is  swept  out  of  the  retort 
before  the  temperature  of  the  carbide  has  reached 
a  dangerous  point. 

The   air  space  is  none  the  less  an  objectionable 


4  LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 

feature  in  any  generator,  and  should  be  cut  down  to 
the  least  proportions  possible.  No  way  has  as  yet 
been  discovered  for  avoiding-  it  in  the  "  dry  ma- 
chines." 

The  trap,  G,  may  clog  with  lime  to  such  a  degree 
as  to  become  inoperative  as  a  means  for  relieving 
excessive  pressure.  It  may,  however,  be  flushed 
out  occasionally  by  pouring  water  into  the  retort. 
There  is  no  danger  of  its  getting  dry,  for  all  the 
moisture  in  the  system  should  drain  to  it. 

The  door  of  the  retort  may  leak,  in  which  event 
a  dangerous  quantity  of  acetylene  may  escape.  A 
vertical  retort  closed  by  a  cover  having  a  water-seal 
prevents  this  trouble,  provided  the  seal  is  maintained 
at  a  constant  level  by  a  float-valve  or  by  constant 
vigilance. 

Gas  continues  to  be  generated  after  the  water- 
supply  ceases,  in  an  amount  too  large  for  the  bell  to 
contain,  and  is  wasted. 

When  a  machine  of  this  character  is  started  with 
a  fresh  charge  of  carbide,  little  difficulty  is  met  in 
regulating  the  water-supply  automatically  to  flow  to 
the  carbide,  and  generate  gas  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  used. 

After  being  in  action  a  short  time,  however,  the 
lime  disengaged  forms  a  protective  and  absorbent 
coating  over  the  blocks  of  carbide,  which  takes  up 
the  water  as  fast  as  delivered  until  it  becomes  satu- 
rated. It  is  then  only  that  the  water  gets  free  ac- 
cess to  the  carbide. 

Consequently  the  machine  responds  slowly  to  the 


THE   DRY   PROCESS   GENERATOR  47 

addition  of  separate  increments  of  water.  On  the 
other  hand,  when  the  supply  of  water  is  shut  off,  the 
carbide,  being  hygroscopic,  continues  to  absorb 
moisture  from  the  wet  lime,  causing  the  evolution 
of  gas  to  continue  for  a  longer  time  than  was  in- 
tended. 

This  action  causes  irregularity  in  the  working  of 
the  machine,  and  when  coupled  with  the  fact  that 
the  hot  lime  absorbs  a  larger  quantity  of  water  than 
it  can  hold  when  it  has  cooled,  makes  machines 
operated  on  this  principle  unsatisfactory. 

The  polymerization  of  acetylene  by  the  rise  of 
temperature  in  a  machine  of  this  class  is  probably 
its  worst  feature.  When  a  large  quantity  of  carbide 
is  charged  into  the  retort,  and  is  then  acted  on  by 
successive  small  additions  of  water,  the  tempera- 
ture may  rise  to  the  point  at  which  the  acetylene  is 
changed  as  generated  into  other  substances — such 
as  benzine — or  may  even  reach  a  red  heat,  at  which 
the  gas  is  split  up  into  carbon  and  hydrogen.  In 
the  latter  case  both  phenomena  are  present  as  a  rule. 
Lampblack  collects  in  the  water-seal,  and  benzine 
may  be  detected  in  the  gas-holder. 

The  loss  of  illuminating  power  is  not  the  only  re- 
sult of  these  changes.  Certain  oily  or  tar  like  prod- 
ucts are  condensed  in  the  pipes,  and  are  carried  by 
the  benzine  vapors  to  the  burners,  where  they  soak 
into  the  lava  tips,  there  to  carbonize  and  eventually 
stop  up  the  jets.  Much  of  the  trouble  given  by  the 
clogging  of  the  burners  is  due  to  this  cause. 

An  index  of  the  amount  of  decomposition  taking 


48  LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 

place  in  the  generator  is  the  discoloration  of  the 
lime  residuum.  If  it  is  nearly  white  or  of  a  bluish 
tint  all  is  probably  going  well,  but  the  appearance 
of  red  or  yellow  spots  and  patches  of  discoloration 
indicates  that  the  temperature  has  been  too  high. 

It  is  a  matter  of  some  doubt,  however,  at  just 
what  temperature  acetylene  begins  to  decompose. 

The  makers  of  dry  machines  invariably  affirm  that 
the  importance  of  the  matter  is  much  exaggerated, 
while  the  manufacturers  of  wet  generators  aver  that 
it  is  the  most  important  fault  corrected  by  their  plan 
of  operation. 

The  water-jacket  has  been  abandoned  in  many  dry 
generators,  as  being  nearly  useless  in  keeping  the 
carbide  cool.  The  carbide  is  generally  placed  in  a 
pan  which  is  then  slipped  into  the  generator.  The 
water-jacket  is,  in  this  case,  too  remote  from  the 
carbide  to  absorb  much  of  the  heat  which  is  set  free 
locally  at  the  point  of  reaction  only. 

When  a  water-jacket  is  not  used,  the  cooling  coil 
through  which  the  gas  passes  is  sometimes  placed 
directly  within  the  gas-holder. 

The  dryer  through  which  the  acetylene  passes  on 
its  way  to  the  filter  is  preferably  filled  with  calcium 
carbide,  which,  in  addition  to  absorbing  the  mois- 
ture from  the  gas,  gives  up  more  gas  in  so  doing. 


THE   WET   PROCESS   GENERATOR 

This  is  shown  diagramatically  above,  in  connec- 
tion with  a  gas-holder.  The  generator  consists  of 
a  cylindrical  can,  closed  by  a  top  which  is  pierced 
with  two  holes — one  for  the  exit  of  gas  into  delivery 
pipe,  B,  and  the  other  for  the  entrance  of  a  chute 
which  depends  through  the  top  of  the  generator  to 
a  point  considerably  below  the  surface  of  the  water, 
and  is  of  such  shape  that  a  piece  of  carbide  dropped 
into  its  upper  end  will  be  delivered  into  the  gener- 
ator at  a  point  where  the  rising  bubbles  of  gas  can- 
not re-enter  the  chute  nor  escape,  except  by  the  gas- 
pipe,  B. 

49 


SO  LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 

While  in  the  dry  machine  a  measured,  small  quan- 
tity of  water  is  periodically  delivered  to  a  large 
mass  of  carbide,  the  action  in  the  wet  generator  is 
exactly  the  reverse.  The  carbide  is  dropped  in 
small,  measured  quantities  into  an  excess  of  water. 
The  generator  may  be  of  the  very  simple  type 
shown  in  Figs.  36  and  37,  in  which  case  the  carbide 
is  dropped  down  the  chute  whenever  the  bell  has 
nearly  reached  the  lower  limit  of  its  travel.  The 
bell,  however,  may  be  made  to  automatically  per- 
form this  operation  in  a  number  of  different  ways. 
In  the  diagramatic  figure,  the  descent  of  the  bell  turns 
a  ratchet-wheel  which  moves  the  circle  of  small  car- 
bide cans  (M)  one  by  one,  over  the  top  of  the  chute 
(F),  at  which  point  a  latch  is  tripped  and  the  con- 
tents of  each  can  is  delivered  successively  down  the 
chute  into  the  generator.  The  gas  which  bubbles 
up  rapidly  through  the  water  contained  in  generator, 
A,  passes  by  way  of  the  pipe,  B,  to  the  Tee  at  C, 
where  any  water  or  moisture  which  is  carried  over 
with  the  gas  drains  into  the  trap,  D ;  the  gas  then 
rises  through  the  three-way  cock  and  enters  the  gas- 
holder. The  arrangement  of  the  safety  and  delivery 
pipes  is  the  same  as  described  in  the  dry  machine, 
both  being  drained  into  trap  D. 

The  safety-pipe  (E)  is  carried  out  of  doors,  prefer, 
ably  to  top  of  building. 

The  top  of  the  chute  is  extended  laterally  to  ac- 
commodate vent  pipe,  G,  which  should  also  be  car- 
ried to  the  highest  convenient  point  outside  of  the 
building.  A  sharp  upward  draft  will  normally  exist 


THE   WET  PROCESS   GENERATOR  51 

in  this  pipe,  and  will  carry  away  any  gas  which 
.rises  through  the  chute  during  the  fall  of  the  car- 
bide into  the  generator. 

A  filling  box  is  built  upon  the  side  of  the  gener- 
ator, with  which  it  communicates  by  a  short  up- 
turned pipe  (I).  Water  is  added  from  time  to  time 
through  this  box,  which  also  allows  the  water-level 
to  be  seen.  A  water-glass  in  this  situation  soon  be- 
comes so  coated  with  lime,  that  it  is  useless. 

A  baffle  plate  (J)  surrounds  the  entrance  of  the 
delivery  pipe  (B),  in  order  to  prevent  the  entrance 
of  water  thereto.  This  plate  is  funnel-shaped,  hav- 
ing a  hole  in  its  centre  below  the  water-line.  Water 
or  lime,  which  enters  the  side  holes  in  the  baffle 
plate,  drains  away  by  the  central  hole. 

At  the  bottom  of  the  generator  is  a  valve  through 
which  the  reduced  lime  in  the  form  of  thick  cream 
may  be  drawn  out,  and  at  L  is  a  grating  which  pre- 
vents the  unreduced  pieces  of  carbide  and  other  im- 
purities from  falling  through  into  the  lime-chamber. 
These  are  occasionally  removed  through  the  hand 
hole,  K. 

There  are  certain  drawbacks  to  the  generation  of 
acetylene  by  this  type  of  machine,  and  certain  acci- 
dents which  may  happen. 

The  gas  in  the  holder  is  kept  from  returning  and 
passing  out  through  the  chute  (F)  entirely  by  the 
fact  that  the  chute  forms,  with  the  water  in  the 
generator,  a  water-seal. 

If,  through  carelessness  in  allowing  the  water  in 
the  generator  to  get  low,  or  by  reason  of  a  leak  in 


52  LIGHTING  BY  ACETYLENE 

the  generator,  the  seal  at  the  bottom  of  the  chute  is 
broken,  the  gas  in  the  holder  immediately  escapes 
into  the  chute,  and  is  thence  carried  out  and  wasted 
through  the  vent  pipe  (G).  This  trouble  may  be  ob- 
viated by  connecting  the  filling  tank  (H)  with  a  con- 
stant water-supply,  and  maintaining  its  level  by 
means  of  a  float  valve,  but  in  that  case  it  seems  sim- 
ply to  be  adding  another  element  of  complication, 
which  in  its  turn  may  get  out  of  order. 

A  leakage  in  the  draw-off  cock  or  hand-hole  re- 
sults in  the  soiling  of  floors  with  the  milk  of  lime 
which  is  formed  in  the  generator. 

When  carbide  is  dropped  into  this  type  of  ma- 
chine the  evolution  of  gas  is  very  rapid,  and  the 
surface  of  the  water  in  the  generator  is  so  disturbed 
by  the  issuing  bubbles  that  if  the  water-level  is  too 
high,  a  very  considerable  quantity  of  water  and 
lime  is  carried  bodily  into  the  pipe,  B,  and  forced  by 
the  rush  of  gas  in  some  cases  as  far  as  the  bell  of  the 
gas-holder.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  a  separate  de- 
livery pipe  is  quite  necessary,  as  the  moisture  or 
free  water  will  settle  in  the  gas-holder  before  reach- 
ing the  delivery  pipe.  Ordinarily  the  trap  (D)  takes 
care  of  the  water  which  is  thrown  into  pipe  B,  pro- 
viding the  latter  is  of  ample  area. 

Of  course,  the  trap  may  clog,  but  by  completely 
filling  the  generator  with  water,  the  pipe  and  trap 
may  be  flushed  and  the  lime  driven  out. 

The  three-way  cock  may  leak,  but  the  safety-pipe, 
which  is  connected  with  it,  prevents  the  gas  from 
entering  the  house.  Fortunately,  in  this  class  of 


THE  WET  PROCESS  GENERATOR        53 

generators  there  is  almost  no  rise  in  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  carbide,  and  the  gas  is  very  thoroughly 
washed  by  bubbling  up  through  the  water  in  the 
generator. 

In  case  any  part  of  the  mechanism  which  delivers 
carbide  to  the  generator  fails  to  work,  the  machine 
is  rendered  inoperative  and  the  supply  of  carbide 
ceases.  This  is  a  good  feature  in  a  machine  which 
is  somewhat  more  complicated  than  the  dry  machine. 

Of  course,  no  air  can  by  any  possibility  enter  the 
gas-holder,  unless  the  chute-seal  is  broken,  but  there 
is  with  each  charge  of  carbide  a  certain  amount  of 
gas  lost  up  the  chute  during  the  passage  of  the  car- 
bide through  the  water  into  the  generator.  Usual- 
ly this  loss  of  gas  is  insignificant,  but  if  the  carbide 
is  in  very  small  pieces  they  sink  slowly  through 
the  chute,  and  the  loss  may  be  as  large  as  half  the 
amount  of  gas  which  would  be  generated  from  that 
charge,  and  in  that  case  the  reaction  which  takes 
place  in  the  chute  is  so  violent  that  the  water  is  car- 
ried up  in  a  great  mass  of  bubbles  and  foam,  which 
sometimes  overflows  the  top  of  the  chute,  spatter- 
ing lime  and  water  freely  about  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  machine.  The  only  way  which  has  been  discov- 
ered thus  far  to  prevent  this  difficulty  is  to  use  car- 
bide broken  into  lumps  of  fairly  uniform  size.  When 
it  becomes  necessary  to  use  finely  broken  carbide, 
the  boiling  over  and  loss  of  gas  may  be  prevented 
by  enclosing  this  fine  carbide  in  a  common  paper- 
bag,  which  may  be  dropped  either  by  hand  or  auto- 
matically down  the  chute.  In  the  course  of  about 


54  LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 

thirty  seconds  the  paper  is  sufficiently  wet  for  the 
evolution  of  gas  to  begin;  the  bag  soon  bursts  open 
and  the  gas  is  given  off  rapidly. 

Unfortunately,  the  manufacturers  will  not  as  yet 
sort  the  carbide  into  pieces  of  uniform  size.  This 
is  perhaps  the  only  product  of  a  similar  character 
which  cannot  be  so  procured.  Almost  every  other 
material  which  is  broken  for  ease  of  shipment  or 
use,  such  as  coal  or  stone,  may  be  purchased  in 
pieces  of  nearly  any  size  desired.  It  is  understood 
that  in  the  new  works  at  Niagara  Falls  and  else- 
where, the  carbide  will  be  put  through  screens  by 
which  it  will  be  separated  into  different  grades. 


THE  PLUNGER 

There  is  another  class  of  generators,  which,  al- 
though nearly  obsolete  in  this  country,  was  much 
used  in  the  first  days  of  lighting  by  acetylene. 

In  these  generators  the  carbide  in  considerable 
quantity  is  suspended  over  a  large  body  of  water 
within  a  gas-tight  vessel,  and  is  so  arranged  that  it 
is  alternately  immersed  in  and  withdrawn  from  the 
liquid. 

In  some  instances  the  carbide  is  suspended  from 
the  top  of  a  movable  bell,  as  in  Fig.  29,  whereby  it 
is  lowered  and  raised  in  turn  from  the  water.  In 
others,  as  in  Fig.  30,  the  water  rises  and  falls  in  re- 
lation to  the  carbide.  This  method  of  generating 
acetylene  is,  perhaps,  the  worst  that  could  be  de- 
vised, as  it  has  all  the  faults  of  the  others  with  no 
redeeming  traits.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  design 
such  a  generator  which  can  be  recharged  without 
great  waste  of  gas. 

Then  the  evolution  of  gas  is  extremely  uneven, 
being  violent  at  first  and  rapidly  becoming  less  as 
the  carbide  is  exhausted. 

The  carbide  is  entirely  withdrawn  from  the  water 
after  each  immersion,  so  that  it  is  not  only  removed 
from  its  cooling  influence,  but  the  moisture  taken  up 
with  the  carbide  drains  away,  leaving  it  in  the  best 
possible  condition  for  generating  heat. 

55 


5^  LIGHTING   BY    ACETYLENE 

The  tendency  for  the  water  to  be  thrown  into  the 
mass  of  carbide  by  the  violence  of  the  reaction  fol- 
lowing its  first  immersion,  necessitates  the  use  of 
impervious  plates  which  divide  the  charge  into 
thin  layers.  Even  then  the  water  is  thrown  up 
around  the  sides  of  the  charge,  and  more  gas  is 
given  off  than  can  be  used  or  the  holder  contain. 
For  experimental  use,  where  a  small  quantity  of 
acetylene  is  occasionally  required,  this  generator  is 
convenient.  It  may  be  very  small,  is  the  simplest  of 
any,  and  may  be  considerably  improved  in  the  uni- 
formity \vith  which  it  generates  gas  by  covering  the 
water  with  a  thick  layer  of  oil.  Under  these  con- 
ditions and  where  the  generator  is  small,  it  is  very 
satisfactory  for  use  in  the  laboratory. 

Professor  Vivian  B.  Lewes,  the  leading  English 
authority  on  acetylene,  sums  up  the  generator  sit- 
uation in  the  following  words: 

"The  generators  of  the  third  class  are  undoubted- 
ly the  best,  as  with  the  water  kept  in  excess  and 
charged  at  the  rate  of  eight  pints  per  hour  for  each 
pound  of  carbide  decomposed,  it  is  impossible  for 
the  temperature  to  rise  above  the  boiling-point  of 
water.  To  ensure  this,  however,  there  must  be  a 
false  bottom  to  the  generator,  capable  of  being  oc- 
casionally rocked,  about  a  foot  to  eighteen  inches 
above  the  true  bottom,  the  lime  sludge  being  drawn 
off  from  the  bottom,  and  water  admitted  pro  rata 
from  above.  If  there  is  no  false  bottom  and  a  big 
charge  of  carbide  is  introduced,  it  becomes  so 
coated  with  lime  that  the  melting-point  of  tin  may 


THE  PLUNGER  57 

be  reached  in  the  interior  of  the  mass,  but  under  all 
conditions  this  class  of  generator  yields  the  purest 
gas,  as  the  acetylene,  having  to  bubble  through  the 
lime-water  formed  in  the  generator,  is  washed  free 
from  most  of  its  impurities. 

"  The  generators  of  the  first  class,  in  which  water 
is  allowed  to  drip  or  flow  on  to  the  carbide,  have 
several  drawbacks.  A  popular  fallacy  with  the 
makers  of  automatic  generators  of  this  class  is  that 
when  the  water-supply  is  cut  off  the  generation  of 
gas  ceases,  whereas  in  fact  it  continues  for  an  hour 
to  an  hour  and  three-quarters  longer,  although  the 
rate  at  which  the  gas  is  evolved  gradually  gets 
slower  and  slower  until  it  ultimately  ceases,  this  con- 
tinuation of  generation  being  partly  due  to  conden- 
sation of  water  vapor  on  to  the  undecomposed  car- 
bide as  the  generator  cools  and  the  decomposition 
of  water  mechanically  held  by  the  slaked  lime, 
while,  if  the  temperature  be  very  high  the  slaked 
lime  is  itself  dehydrated.  In  this  class  of  generator 
the  temperature  frequently  rises  to  a  sufficient  de- 
gree to  cause  the  formation  of  benzine,  while  in 
some  cases  tar  is  produced. 

"  Overheating,  when  it  reaches  this  point,  is  readily 
detected  by  the  appearance  of  the  lime  left  in  the 
generator;  this  should  be  practically  white,  but  if 
it  is  found  to  be  yellow,  serious  overheating  has  un- 
doubtedly taken  place,  while  the  appearance*  of  oil 
or  tar  in  any  part  of  the  apparatus  is  a  still  more 
damning  proof  of  its  unfitness. 

"  The  worst  offenders  as  regards  overheating  are 


58  LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 

to  be  found  in  the  second  group,  where  the  alternate 
dipping  of  the  carbide  into  water  and  its  removal  as 
the  bell  rises  allows  the  action  to  proceed  without 
any  cooling  influence  being  brought  to  bear  upon 
it,  and  it  frequently  happens  that  under  these  con- 
ditions the  wuole  charge  of  carbide  becomes  red 
hot,  tar  vapors,  hydrogen,  various  hydro-carbons 
and  benzine  vapors  are  mixed  with  the  acetylene, 
and  its  illuminating  value  drops  by  leaps  and  bounds 
until  its  light-giving  properties  are  no  better  than 
those  of  a  good  oil  gas,  while  the  burner  tips  become 
choked  and  smoking  and  general  discontent  reigns 
supreme." 

Returning  now  to  our  list  of  conditions  which 
the  ideal  generator  should  fulfil,  we  shall  be  able  to 
find  what  elements  are  present  or  lacking  in  existing 
machines,  and  along  what  lines  further  development 
is  likely  to  proceed. 

In  the  matter  of  safety  from  explosion  due  to 
pressure  of  gas  in  the  generator,  it  need  only  be  said 
that  at  the  present  day  no  generators  are  made  in 
which  a  dangerous  rise  of  pressure  could  take  place. 
Danger  from  explosion  of  the  gas  in  the  generator 
by  coming  in  contact  with  fire  is,  however,  a  more 
real  hazard. 

In  the  dry  machines  the  retort  must  be  opened  in 
order  to  insert  fresh  carbide.  During  this  opera- 
tion the  gas  within  the  retort  escapes,  while  air 
gradually  takes  its  place,  making  both  within  the 
retort  and  in  its  immediate  neighborhood  an  explo- 
sive mixture.  In  the  wet  machines  the  same  things 


DISCUSSION  59 

happen  when  the  water  is  drawn  off  for  recharging. 
Theoretically,  this  is  unnecessary  in  the  latter  class 
of  apparatus ;  but  in  practice  it  nearly  always  hap- 
pens, and  considerable  skill  is  required  to  prevent 
its  occurrence.  In  both  machines  gas  may  leak  from 
the  cocks,  and  in  the  wet  generator  some  is  always 
lost  during  the  passage  of  the  carbide  down  the 
chute.  This  may  be  removed  by  the  ventilator ; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  under  certain  conditions  of 
wind  and  weather  a  "  back  draft  "  will  exist  which 
drives  the  gas  into  the  room  containing  the  ma- 
chine. 

The  clogging  by  frost  of  the  safety-pipe  leading 
from  the  gas-holder  has  been  suggested  as  one 
source  of  danger.  If  the  safety-pipe  is  properly 
drained,  however,  this  cannot  happen,  and  is  men- 
tioned as  a  caution  only  against  generators  which 
are  poorly  made. 

The  installation  of  any  generator  should  include 
the  construction  of  a  specially  ventilated  room  or 
closet  of  sufficient  size  to  contain  the  complete  ap- 
paratus, and  a  small  quantity  of  carbide  for  im- 
mediate use.  With  this  precaution  and  the  living 
up  to  the  hard  and  fast  rule  that  the  room  shall  not 
be  entered  by  artificial  light,  any  modern  acetylene 
generator,  be  it  wet  or  dry,  is,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
author,  entirely  safe  as  a  primary  cause  of  fire. 

In  the  matter  of  economy  and  maximum  yield  of 
gas,  both  classes  of  generators  are  deficient,  with  a 
slight  advantage  in  favor  of  the  wet  generator. 

Both  waste  some  gas.      The  dry    machine  loses 


60  LIGHTING  BY   ACETYLENE 

an  appreciable  quantity  at  each  opening  of  the  re> 
tort,  with  the  further  disadvantage  of  entrapping  a 
like  amount  of  air.  In  addition  to  these  channels 
of  waste,  there  is  in  the  dry  generator  the  ever-pres- 
ent trouble  of  over-production  and  waste  through 
the  safety  pipe;  and  in  some  a  considerable  degree 
of  polymerization  takes  place,  with  its  attendant  in- 
conveniences of  clogged  burners  and  lowered  can- 
dle-power. 

In  the  wet  generator  there  are  two  causes  of  loss 
in  economy.  The  first  results  from  the  time  which 
is  taken  for  the  carbide  to  sink  through  the  chute, 
during  which  process  the  acetylene  escapes  up  the 
vent  pipe. 

When  carbide  in  large  pieces  is  used,  or  when  the 
carbide  is  protected  by  being  previously  immersed 
in  oil,  the  loss  is  small ;  but  with  the  fine  or  dust- 
like  material  which  constitutes  several  per  cent,  of 
each  package  of  carbide  the  loss  is  greater  than  the 
available  yield. 

This  fine  carbide,  even  when  made  into  a  paste 
with  kerosene  oil,  generates  acetylene  with  almost 
explosive  rapidity.  The  water  is  driven  up  the 
chute,  the  seal  is  often  broken ;  and  not  only  is  the 
greater  part  of  the  intended  charge  of  gas  lost,  but 
that  in  the  bell  also.  In  this  event  the  lights  go  out, 
and  the  generator  is  temporarily  disabled. 

A  smaller  loss  occurs  by  reason  of  the  solubility 
of  acetylene  in  the  "  sludge,"  which  must  be  often 
removed  from  the  generator.  This  is  small,  however 
— from  one-half  to  one  per  cent,  in  usual  practice. 


DISCUSSION  6 1 

If  the  "  sludge"  is  allowed  to  become  too  thick 
with  precipitated  lime,  even  the  large  pieces  of 
carbide  sink  with  difficulty  through  the  chute,  and 
the  loss  of  gas  during  the  charging  process  is 
great. 

In  ease  of  management  the  dry  machine,  when  it 
performs  its  functions  properly,  has  some  advan- 
tage. It  is  more  quickly  charged  by  those  accus- 
tomed to  it  than  is  the  wet  machine. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  by-products  of  the  dry 
machine  are  intensely  disagreeable,  as  compared 
with  the  "sludge  "  of  the  wet  generator,  and  ordi- 
narily require  handling  more  often. 

The  dry  machine  is  certainly  simpler  in  its  best 
form  than  the  wet,  but  neither  is  really  complicated. 
All  the  pipes  and  connections  are  permanent  fix- 
tures,  and  each  generator  has  only  one  or  at  most 
two  cocks  or  valves. 

To  offset  the  devices  whereby  water  is  fed  to  the 
dry  generator,  the  wet  machine  has  some  simple 
form  of  ratchet  mechanism  for  dropping  carbide 
into  the  water.  Either  is  simple  enough  to  be  un- 
derstood by  those  to  whom  the  attendance  of  the 
apparatus  is  generally  entrusted,  and  neither  is  like- 
ly, except  through  gross  carelessness,  to  get  out  of 
order. 

Before  acetylene  as  an  iiluminant  takes  the  place 
which  it  is  destined  eventually  to  occupy,  material 
changes  must  be  made  in  the  method  of  its  genera- 
tion. 

At  the    present  writing,   the   problem    does   not 


62  LIGHTING  BY  ACETYLENE 

seem  an  easy  one,  nor  does  its  solution  seem  im- 
mediately probable. 

The  gas-holder,  with  its  inlet  and  exit  pipes,  its 
safety  appliances  and  drainage  system,  is  all  that  can 
be  desired,  and  is,  withal,  extremely  simple  and  dur- 
able. 

In  the  author's  opinion,  the  crux  exists  in  accom- 
plishing, without  undue  complication,  three  things. 

The  first  is  to  introduce  the  carbide  into  the  gen- 
erator without  loss  of  gas  or  admittance  of  air. 

The  second  is  to  remove  the  lime  under  the  same 
-conditions  ;  and  the  third  is  to  devise  a  means  in  the 
dry  generator  for  the  prevention  of  over-production 
and  heating. 

Until  these  desiderata  are  accomplished  facts,  the 
generation  of  acetylene  will  be  at  best  a  disagree- 
able performance,  tolerated  for  the  sake  of  the  un- 
rivalled light  to  be  obtained  from  the  gas. 

In  spite  of  its  difficulties,  the  problem  is  not  in 
the  least  hopeless,  neither  is  there  any  insurmount- 
able obstacle  in  the  way  of  its  accomplishment ; 
and  it  is  to  be  fully  expected  that  as  the  interest 
in  acetylene  becomes  wider,  as  the  demands  for  per- 
fection in  generators  become  imperative,  more  per- 
manent apparatus  will  take  the  place  of  that  which 
has  temporarily  served  to  tide  the  new  illuminant 
over  the  period  of  its  infancy. 


IMPURITIES    OF    CARBIDE    AND    ACETY- 

LENE 

In  the  manufacture  of  calcium  carbide,  in  spite  of 
the  most  careful  effort,  it  is  practically  impossible  to 
obtain  either  lime  or  coke  which  is  entirely  pure. 
For  this  reason  the  carbide,  and,  consequently,  the 
acetylene  generated  therefrom,  is  alway  contam- 
inated with  other  products.  The  amount  of  im- 
purities in  the  gas  is  generally  so  small  as  to  be  neg- 
ligible. The  principal  impurities  in  the  carbide  are 
of  importance  from  the  fact  that  they  are  not  acted 
upon  by  water,  and  when  the  carbide  is  converted 
into  gas  they  remain  within  the  generator  either  in 
the  form  of*  lumps,  like  pieces  of  clinker,  or  of 
rounded  nodules  of  various  sizes.  The  nodules  are 
of  two  kinds,  one  small  and  non-magnetic,  which 
upon  examination  appears  to  be  principally  graph- 
ite, reduced  from  the  coke  by  the  intense  heat  of 
the  furnace ;  the  other  nodules  are  hard,  white,  and 
glistening  on  the  surface,  sometimes  showing  signs 
of  rust  when  exposed  to  dampness,  generally  possess- 
ing magnetic  properties,  and  are  of  a  hardness  suf- 
ficient to  scratch  glass. 

These  nodules  contain  silicon  and  iron,  with  some- 
times traces  of  aluminum  and  magnesia.  They  are 

63 


64  LIGHTING  BY   ACETYLENE 

somewhat  similar  to  carborundum  in  their  proper- 
ties. 

The  contamination  of  acetylene,  which  results 
from  the  use  of  an  impure  carbide,  was  at  one  time 
considered  a  very  serious  element  of  danger.  The 
only  danger  which  could  result  from  an  admixture 
of  foreign  substances  with  acetylene,  would  be  the 
possibility  of  forming  in  the  mixture  a  self-igniting 
gas  or  compound  of  gases. 

There  are  two  gases  —  phosphoretted  hydrogen 
and  siliciuretted  hydrogen — which  are  spontane- 
ously inflammable  upon  contact  with  the  air.  Either 
of  these  may  exist  in  acetylene  produced  from  car- 
bide which  contained  calcium  phosphide  or  silicide. 

The  experiments,  however,  of  Professor  Vivian 
Lewes  have  shown  that  either  of  these  gases  would 
have  to  be  present  in  a  very  large  proportion  in 
order  to  make  an  explosive  mixture  with  the  acety- 
lene. He  examined  twelve  samples  of  carbide  from 
different  sources  in  which  the  percentage  of  phos- 
phoretted hydrogen  ranged  from  a  trace  to  nearly 
two  and  a  half  per  cent.,  and  found  none  under  the 
most  favorable  conditions  capable  of  producing  a 
self-igniting  gas.  He  discovered,  also,  that  an  act- 
ual admixture  might  be  made  containing  as  high  as 
eighty  per  cent,  of  phosphoretted  hydrogen  intro- 
duced separately  into  acetylene  without  producing 
a  self-igniting  mixture. 

It  is  believed  that  no  authentic  instance  of  acci- 
dent from  the  self-ignition  of  acetylene  has  been  re- 
corded, and  in  the  American  carbide  the  proportion 


IMPURITIES    OF    CARBIDE  65 

of  calcic  phosphide  is,  by   careful  selection   of  the 
materials,  kept  down  to  a  minimum. 

Nearly  all  acetylene  which  has  not  been  carefully 
washed,  shows  the  presence  of  a  small  quantity  of 
ammonia  together  with  some  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen. 

The  ammonia  is  detrimental  in  that  it  favors  the 
production  of  acetylide  of  copper  in  the  cocks  of 
the  burners,  making  them  turn  with  difficulty  after 
a  time  ;  but  it  is  so  easily  removed  by  passing  the 
gas  through  water,  together  with  the  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  which  accompanies  it,  that  neither  of  these 
impurities  need  exist  in  the  gas  made  in  a  well- 
managed  generator. 

It  is  said  that  much  of  the  European  carbide, 
manufactured  upon  the  Continent,  contains  suffi- 
cient phosphoretted  hydrogen  to  produce  an  irrit- 
ating vapor  of  phosphoric  acid  in  the  rooms  in 
which  the  gas  is  burned.  In  this  country  there  has 
been  no  report  of  a  similar  trouble.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  impurities  which  have  been  most  often 
noted  in  the  gas  are  due  to  overheating  in  the  gener- 
ator. When  acetylene  is  subjected  to  a  high  tem- 
perature it  splits  up,  as  is  well  known,  into  certain 
polymers,  such  as  benzine,  styrolene,  naphthalene, 
anthracene,  tar  and  oily  hydrocarbon.  The  decom- 
position is  more  complete  as  the  temperature  is> 
higher,  and  is  nearly  in  the  order  of  the  substances 
given  above.  At  a  red  heat  carbon  is  separated  in 
the  form  of  lampblack,  and  hydrogen  is  set  free. 
The  objection  to  a  gas  containing  impurities  is 


66  LIGHTING  BY   ACETYLENE 

chiefly  that  of  the  money  loss,  owing  to  the  poor 
yield  per  pound  of  carbide. 

The  benzine  vapor,  hydrogen  and  other  volatile 
products,  resulting  from  too  high  a  temperature  in 
the  generator,  not  only  do  not  of  themselves  give 
luminous  flames  when  burned  in  an  acetylene  jet, 
but  they  actually,  by  dilution,  reduce  the  candle- 
power  of  the  remaining  gas. 

In  addition  to  these  disadvantages,  the  benzine 
vapor  is  the  frequent  cause  of  the  clogging  of  burn- 
ers. It  exists  in  the  form  of  vapor  condensed  within 
the  pipes,  and  is  carried  to  the  burners  by  the  outrush 
of  acetylene.  There  it  is  deposited  upon  the  steatite 
tip  of  the  jet,  and  after  being  absorbed  is  carbonized 
and  causes  a  contraction  in  the  jet  orifice.  Jets 
which  have  once  become  smoky  from  this  cause, 
rarely  recover  their  original  power  of  illumination, 
even  if  carefully  cleaned.  It  is  probable  that  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  the  benzine,  and  other  liquid  which 
has  been  absorbed  by  the  steatite  tip,  remains  there 
and  is  gradually  carbonized  and  driven  into  the  ori- 
fice by  successive  heating  of  the  burner. 

The  very  general  use  of  bicycle  acetylene  lamps, 
which  are  made  entirely  of  brass,  has  caused  the 
theory  of  the  formation  of  acetylide  of  copper  to 
fall  into  disrepute.  In  these  lamps,  however,  brass 
is  always  used  and  not  copper ;  and  the  lamps  are, 
as  a  rule,  nickel  plated,  both  inside  and  out.  The 
charges  of  carbide  are  frequently  renewed,  and  the 
lamp,  by  constant  washing,  is  kept  relatively  clean. 

The  experiment  of  Bullier,  who  found  that  a  pol- 


IMPURITIES    OF    CARBIDE  67 

ished  copper  plate  was  practically  uninfluenced  by 
acetylene  for  a  considerable  length  of  time,  has  con- 
tributed to  the  general  feeling  that  the  formation 
of  acetylides  is  an  exploded  idea. 

The  author  has  experimented  carefully  upon  this 
subject  and  is  entirely  satisfied,  as  a  result  of  his 
work,  that  acetylide  of  copper  is  formed  with  great 
readiness  whenever  ammonia  is  present  in  the  gas, 
in  the  presence  of  moisture.  He  furthermore  finds 
that  a  polished  copper  or  brass  surface  is  much  less 
affected  than  is  one  which  has  been  already  cor- 
roded and  covered  with  oxide.  He  finds  also  that  a 
surface  fresh  from  the  file  or  the  turning  lathe,  cov- 
ered with  minute  tool-marks,  almost  immediately 
shows  the  red  coloration  peculiar  to  acetylide  of 
copper  when  subjected  to  the  action  of  nascent 
acetylene. 

It  is  not  pretended  that  any  real  danger  exists 
from  this  formation  in  the  gas  fixtures  and  pipes, 
but  the  gradual  corrosion  of  the  stop-cocks  is  annoy- 
ing, and  the  author  is  convinced  that  it  is  a  frequent 
cause  of  leakage.  It  is  certainly  inadvisable  to  use 
either  copper  or  brass  in  the  construction  of  the 
generator. 

Another  impurity  almost  always  present  in  ace- 
tylene which  has  been  recently  produced,  is  a  fine 
dust  thrown  off  from  the  lime  in  the  process  of  de- 
composition. This  cloud  of  lime-dust  is  so  light 
and  its  particles  are  so  fine  that  it  remains  suspended 
in  the  gas  for  hours,  and  unless  special  care  is  taken 
to  remove  it  by  filtration  through  cotton  or  other 


68  LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 

fabric,  the  dust  enters  the  pipes  and  eventually  clogs 
up  the  burners,  and  assists  in  cutting  out  the  stop- 
cocks. 

Another  impurity  which  is  of  almost  universal 
occurrence  is  air.  In  small  proportions  this  has  no 
other  ill  effect  than  to  lower  the  candle-power  of  the 
gas,  but  it  certainly  should  be  excluded  if,  for  no 
other  reason  than  the  fact  that  in  certain  propor- 
tions it  makes  an  explosive  mixture. 

It  will  be  understood  that  if  the  generator  con- 
tains a  certain  quantity  of  air,  this  goes  over  into 
the  gas-holder  with  the  first  gas  which  is  generated, 
and  there  will  be  a  time  at  the  beginning  of  the  gas- 
making  when  the  mixture  is  explosive.  The  admis- 
sion of  air  to  the  gas  in  any  quantity  is  certainly  in- 
advisable, and  may  be  dangerous. 


GENERATORS 

IN  the  earlier  stages  of  experiment  with  acetylene, 
before  suitable  burners  were  devised,  it  was  consid- 
ered necessary  to  mingle  a  certain  proportion  of  air 
with  the  gas,  either  in  the  generator  or  in  a  special 
mixer,  before  it  reached  the  distributing  pipes. 
Since  this  practice  has  been  entirely  given  up,  on 
account  of  its  danger,  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  more 
than  mention  such  apparatus  as  something  to  be 
carefully  avoided. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  such  generators  as  de- 
liver the  gas  under  considerable  pressure,  and  of  the 
various  machines  for  reducing  it  to  a  liquid  form. 

Generators  for  the  production  of  acetylene  gas 
under  the  very  slight  pressure  necessary  to  send  it 
to  the  burners  may  be  divided  broadly  into  three 
classes,  each  of  which  has  many  modifications,  and 
in  each  of  which  the  various  operations  have  been 
performed  in  devious  ways. 

Some  of  the  variants  scarcely  come  under  the 
classes  into  which  they  have  arbitrarily  been  di- 
vided, but,  as  they  are  not  numerous,  it  seems  un- 
necessary, so  long  as  they  retain  salient  features  of 
any  one  type,  to  classify  them  separately. 

The  three  types  of  generator  may  be  classed  as 
follows : 

69 


7<D  LIGHTING  BY   ACETYLENE 

ist.  Generators  which  have  the  generator  and 
gasometer  separate,  and  in  which  the  gas  is  pro- 
duced by  supplying  water  gradually  and  in  meas- 
ured quantity  to  a  considerable  portion  of  carbide 
contained  in  a  closed  vessel. 

2d.  Generators  which  contain  both  the  carbide 
and  water,  with  means  for  immersing  and  withdraw- 
ing the  carbide  successively  by  a  relative  move- 
ment of  the  carbide  and  water. 

3d.  Generators  provided  with  means  for  drop- 
ping .measured  quantities  of  carbide  into  a  large 
volume  of  water. 

GENERATORS   OF  THE   FIRST   CLASS. 

Dickerson  Generator  (Fig.  11). — In  this  genera- 
tor, which  was  one  of  the  first  invented,  a  gasometer 
is  connected  by  a  pipe  to  a  sealed  chamber  contain- 
ing a  layer  of  carbide  and  having  within  it  a  perfo- 
rated tube  communicating  with  a  reservoir  of  water 
and  closed  by  a  measuring  stop-cock.  This  cock  is 
operated  by  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  gasometer  bell. 
The  plug  of  the  cock  is  hollowed  out  and  has  two 
slots  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  When  one  slot 
is  in  a  vertical  position,  it  is  open  to  the  water- 
reservoir.  Water  enters  and  fills  the  hollow  of  the 
plug.  Upon  the  descent  of  the  gasometer  bell,  the 
cock  is  rotated,  the  reservoir  is  shut  off,  and  the 
second  slot  is  brought  into  position  to  deliver  the 
water  in  the  hollow  plug  to  the  tube  which  con- 
veys it  to  the  carbide.  As  the  gasometer  rises,  the 


GENERATORS 


parts  resume  their  first  position  and  the  operation  is 
repeated  until  the  carbide  is  exhausted.  In  order 
to  deliver  the  vyater  quickly  to  the  carbide,  the  axis 
of  the  cock  is  provided  with  a  weighted  lever,  so 
that  when  the  cock  is  turned  pasta  certain  point  the 
weight  falls,  turning  it  the  rest  of  the  way. 

Generator  of  Janson  and  Leroy  (Fig.  12).— 
This  generator  has  a  gasometer  which  is  provided 
with  two  retorts  or  generating  chambers,  either  one 
of  which  may  be  put  in  action  or  cut  out  by  means 
of  the  cocks  r,  r,  C,  C. 


FIG.   II.     Dickerson's  Generator. 

An  elevated  tank  of  water  communicates  with  the 
retorts  by  means  of  a  tube  containing  a  cock  (R) 
kept  closed  by  a  spring.  When  the  bell  of  the 
gasometer  falls,  a  finger  (D)  with  which  it  is  pro- 
vided opens  the  cock  (R)  and  delivers  water  to  one 
of  the  retorts.  When  the  carbide  in  that  retort  is 
exhausted,  the  further  descent  of  the  bell  rings  an 
electric  alarm,  warning  one  to  so  turn  the  cocks  as 


LIGHTING   BY  ACETYLENE 


to  put  the  other  retort  into  action.  The  first  may 
then  be  disconnected,  opened,  cleaned  of  lime  and 
recharged. 


Ca 

C2 

Ca 

c. 

GASOMETER 
BELL 


t 

FIG.    12.     Janson  and  Leroy  Generator. 

The  Bon  Generator  (Fig.  13)  has  a  cock  (r') 
operated  by  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  gasometer  bell. 
A  reservoir  of  water  is  placed  on  top  of  the  gasom- 
eter and  is  provided  with  a  water-gauge,  so  that,  if 
a  quantity  of  water  is  placed  therein  sufficient  to 
decompose  the  carbide  placed  in  the  generator,  an 
inspection  of  the  gauge  will  show  how  nearly  the 
charge  is  exhausted.  The  water  descends  by  the 


GENERATORS 


73 


tube  G  and  falls  into  a  funnel  (G')  which  conducts 
it  by  an  inverted  siphon  to  the  carbide. 

The  carbide  is  placed  in  a  pan  (F)  which  is  divided 
into  compartments,  numbered  from    i  to   12  in  the 


FIG.    13.     Bon  Generator. 

lower  figure.  Each  compartment  contains  such  a 
weight  of  carbide  that  the  gas  which  it  disengages 
will  just  fill  the  bell  of  the  gasometer.  If  too  great 
a  quantity  of  water  enters,  it  attacks  the  carbide  in 
the  first  compartment  only,  so  that  there  is  no  over- 
production of  gas.  Each  compartment  communi- 


74  LIGHTING   BY  ACETYLENE 

cates  with  the  one  before  and  the  one  following  by 
means  of  a  notch  cut  in  one  of  its  walls. 

The  water  falls  always  into  the  first  compartment, 
and,  after  the  carbide  it  contains  is  decomposed, 
overflows  into  the  next,  and  so  on  until  all  are  suc- 
cessively filled.  The  pan  containing  the  carbide  is 
placed  in  an  outer  case  containing  water,  which 
keeps  it  cool  and  acts  as  a  seal  in  conjunction  with 
the  bell  (H)  held  in  place  by  a  bar  (A). 

The  gas  enters  the  holder  by  a  curved  pipe  (D) 
below  the  water  line ;  it  is  washed  by  bubbling  up 
through  the  water.  A  dryer  (L)  in  the  delivery-pipe 
may  be  filled  with  any  absorbent  of  moisture  or,  as 
is  sometimes  the  case,  with  lumps  of  carbide,  which 
not  only  absorb  the  moisture  but  give  off  additional 
gas. 

The  Souriou  Generator  (Fig.  14).— This  is 
provided  at  its  base  with  a  circle  of  retorts  each 
containing  sufficient  carbide  to  generate  gas  enough 
to  fill  the  gasometer. 

Each  retort  is  provided  with  a  weighted  lever 
controlling  its  water-supply,  and  each  lever  is  nor- 
mally held  in  position  by  a  latch  to  close  the  cock 
which  it  operates.  The  latches  are  successively 
opened  by  the  motion  of  the  gasometer  bell. 

The  Clausolles  Generator.  This  has  a  single 
retort  surmounted  by  a  reservoir  of  water.  A  cock 
connecting  the  two  is  operated  by  the  gasometer 
bell  as  it  rises  and  falls.  In  this  machine  it  is  in- 
tended that  the  admission  of  water  shall  be  proper- 
tional  to  the  gas  used. 


GENERATORS 


75 


The  only  novelty  is  a  tube  open  at  both  ends, 
which  projects  from  the  top  of  the  bell  and  extends 
downward  to  nearly  its  entire  depth.  In  case  of 


FIG.  14.     Souriou  Generator. 

over-production,  the  lower  end  of  the  tube  is  lifted 
out  of  the  water  before  the  bell  is  quite  full,  allow- 
ing the  surplus  gas  to  escape.  By  this  means  the 
spattering  of  the  water,  which  attends  the  escape  of 
gas  from  the  under  edge  of  the  bell  itself,  is  avoided. 


76 


LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 


The  Voigt  Generator  (Fig.  15)  differs  from 
the  last  only  in  having  the  controlling  cock  actuated 
by  a  rack  and  gear-wheels,  and  in  passing  the  gas 
through  a  cooling  coil  on  its  way  to  the  holder. 


FIG.  15.     Voigt  Generator. 

The  Humilly  Generator  (Fig.  16)  is  an  inge- 
nious arrangement  of  this  type  of  machine.  The 
gasometer  in  this  machine  is  small  and  acts  prin- 
cipally as  a  regulator.  The  generator  consists  of 
a  tightly  closed  bell  weighted  with  a  lead  disc  (p). 


GENERATORS 


77 


Within  is  a  basket  of  carbide,  through  which  a  tube 
(C)  projects  and  is  surmounted  by  a  conical  distrib- 
utor (I).  The  retort  is  immersed  in  the  water  con- 
tained in  the  outer  vessel  by  which  it  is  kept  cool. 
Some  of  the  water  finds  its  way  up  to  the  tube  C, 


FIG.  16.     Humilly  Generator. 

whence  it  runs  down  the  inclined  surface  of  the  cone 
I  and  drips  upon  the  carbide.  As  the  pressure 
increases  the  flow  of  water  is  arrested. 

An  improved  form  of  this  generator  is  shown  in 
Fig.  17,  in  which  the  carbide  is  divided  up  among  a 
number  of  pots  having  holes  through  their  sides  at 


LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 


different  levels.  By  this  device  the  water  enters 
one  pot  after  another,  so  that  only  a  small  amount  of 
carbide  is  acted  upon  at  a  time. 


FIG.  1 7.     Humilly  Generator. 

The  Exley  Generator  (Fig.  18),  which  has  been 
much  used,  is  on  a  similar  principle,  but  has  the 
carbide  contained  in  two  retorts  (R,  R')  fastened  to 
the  side  of  the  water-vessel  A,  with  which  they 
communicate  by  means  of  tubes  (T,  T). 

In  action,  the  cock  v  is  closed,  while  vl,  v*,  v6  are 
open.  The  water  coming-  through  the  hole  O 
passes  by  the  pipe  T  to  R',  where  it  attacks  the  car- 


GENERATORS 


79 


bide.  The  gas  generated  passes  by  way  of  the  pipes 
D',  D  to  the  upper  part  of  the  reservoir  (A),  where 
it  displaces  the  water,  forcing  it  into  B  by  way  of 
the  drop-tube  P.  As  gas  accumulates  in  A,  the 
level  of  the  water  sinks  until  the  hole  O  is  reached, 
ns 


FIG.  1 8.     Exley  Generator. 

when  no  more  can  enter  the  retort.  The  gas  is  led 
to  the  burners  through  the  cooling-coil  (S).  When 
the  contents  of  retort  R'  is  exhausted,  the  water  in 
A  rises,  as  gas  is  used,  until  it  flows  through  the 
branch  pipe  and  open  cock  (V)  to  the  retort  (R), 
where  the  same  action  takes  place  as  before. 


8o 


LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 


When  this  happens,  which  may  be  determined 
by  the  reading  of  the  water-glass  attached  to  the 
apparatus,  the  first  retort  is  opened  and  recharged. 
During  this  process  the  cocks  v\  v*  are  closed. 


FIG.  19.     Gillet  &  Forest  Generator. 

Safety-pipes  having  valves  (X)  to  prevent  return  of 
the  gas  to  the  retorts  are  provided.     There  is  con- 


GENERATORS 


Si 


siderable  unnecessary  complication  about  this  gener- 
ator, and,  as  the  level  of  the  liquid  determines  the 
pressure  of  the  gas,  a  fluctuating  delivery  results. 


The  Gillet  &  Forest  Generator  (Fig.  19)  op- 
erates on  the  same  principle  of  displacing  the  level 
of  water  contained  in  the  gas-holder.  The  retort 


82 


LIGHTING  BY   ACETYLENE 


(G)  contains  a  basket  of  carbide  (P),  and  is  closed 
by  a  cover  and  screw  (A).  Water  enters  by  the 
small  tube  c,  while  gas  leaves  by  tube  C.  As  gas 
accumulates  in  the  holder,  the  water  is  forced  into 
the  upper  section.  When  the  level  of  the  water  in 
the  lower  part  reaches  the  mouth  (o)  of  the  tube  (<;), 
the  flow  ceases  and  a  fairly  close  regulation  is  for  a 
time  effected. 

The  Deroy  Generator  (Fig.  20)  is  said  to  give  a 
very  regular  output  of  gas.  It  consists  of  a  gasom- 
eter (15)  with  bell  (17),  to  which  are  connected  two 
retorts  (1,2)  by  curved  pipes  (8,9),  which  convey 
the  gas  first  through  a  washer  (3). 


FIG.  20 A. 

Water  trom  a  reservoir,  fed  from  a  second  reser- 
voir (14),  enters  retort  i  by  way  of  the  cock  6. 
The  retorts  contain  carbide  subdivided  into  separate 
cells  (Fig.  2OA)  by  a  series  of  discs  and  rings,  so  that 
the  different  portions  are  at  various  levels.  The 
water,  as  it  rises  in  the  retort,  can  reach  only  one  cell 


GENERATORS  83 

at  a  time,  and  it  is  intended  that  the  contents  of  each 
cell  shall,  when  decomposed,  fill  the  bell  with  gas. 

The  supply  of  water  to  the  carbide  is  controlled 
by  the  pressure  in  the  retort  and  the  level  of  the 
liquid  in  the  reservoir,  which  is  provided  with  an 
overflow  (16).  When  retort  i  is  exhausted,  the 


FlG.  21.     Chesnay  &  Pillion  Generator. 

water  rises  until  it  flows  by  the  curved  tube  7  to  re- 
tort 2.  No.  i  may  then  be  recharged. 

Before  that  is  done,  the  cock  6  is  turned  to  sup- 
ply directly  retort  2. 

The  Generator  of  Chesnay  &  Pillion  has  the 
usual  arrangement  (Fig.  21)  of  retort  and  gasometer. 

The  novelty  which  makes  it  worthy  of  notice  is 
that  the  reservoir  of  water  is  raised  and  lowered  b} 
the  bell,  being  suspended  therefrom  by  a  cord  and 
connected  to  the  retort  by  means  of  a  rubber 


84 


LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 


tube.  T.  O'CONNOR  SLOANE,  of  New  York,  has 
made  a  very  pretty  application  of  the  same  idea  for 
lantern  projections.  It  may  be  here  remarked  that 
the  acetylene  light  answers  admirably  for  the  magic 
lantern,  and,  with  a  small  generator  of  this  type,  is 
convenient  and  cheap. 

In    Ragot's   Generator  a   very   ingenious    ar- 
rangement is  shown. 


A' 


FIG.  22.     Ragot's  Generator. 

In  order  to  avoid  the  varying  weight  of  the  full 
and  empty  reservoir  of  the  last  machine,  he  supports 
the  reservoir  of  water  and  moves  the  flexible  outlet 
leading  from  it  by  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  bell.  This 


GENERATORS 


is  illustrated  by  Fig.  22,  which  also  shows  the  pair  of 
retorts  used  and  the  means  for  putting  either  one 
into  operation  alternately. 

La  Phare  Generator. — In  this  generator  (Fig. 
23)  an  elevated  .water-supply  (E)  is  connected  by  a 


M   N 
FIG.  23.     La  Phare  Generator. 


flexible  tube  to  the  first  of  a  series  of  retorts  (G,  G) 
containing  carbide  in  superimposed  pans.  Each 
retort  is  connected  by  a  rubber  tube  to  the  next  in 
series,  and  the  last  by  way  of  a  wash-bottle  (K)  to  the 
gasometer.  A  cock  (D,  D),  normally  held  closed  by  a 


86  LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 

spring,  is  opened  by  a  cord  (C),  which  is  pulled  when 
the  gasometer  bell  sinks  to  a  certain  point.  Water 
enters  the  first  retort,  from  which  the  gas  passes  by 
way  of  the  opening  Z  through  the  other  retorts  to 
the  gasometer.  When  the  first  retort  is  exhausted, 
the  water  overflows  into  the  second,  and  so  on.  The 
first  retort  is  then  disconnected  from  the  series  and 
the  water-tube  connected  to  the  second.  A  water- 
supply  pipe  and  float-valve  keep  the  reservoir  D 
always  full. 

The  Springfield  Generator.— This  machine, 
which  was  perhaps  the  first  to  recognize  the  desir- 
ability of  storing  acetylene  in  an  underground  gas- 
holder, is  shown  in  Fig.  24. 

This  generator  is  of  the  intermittent  type,  requir- 
ing to  be  recharged  with  carbide  each  time  the  gas- 
holder is  emptied.  Owing  to  the  unequal  pressure 
upon  the  gas  in  the  holder,  corresponding  to  differ- 
ent water  levels,  a  pressure-regulator  is  required  in 
the  main  delivery-pipe. 

A  and  A'  are  iron  tanks,  each  having  a  capacity 
sufficient  to  hold  the  gas  generated  by  one  charge 
of  the  generator. 

B,  the  generator,  is  a  cast-iron  cylinder. 

C,  the  lid  or  cover  of  the  generator. 

E  is  a  gallery  supplied  with  mercury,  in  which 
the  lip  of  the  lid  is  immersed  when  the  generator 
is  closed,  in  order  to  make  a  gas-tight  seal. 

F  is  a  clamp  for  holding  the  lid  shut,  and  forms 
the  lever  of  the  gas-cock  (D).  If  desired,  this  may 
be  secured  with  a  padlock. 


GENERATORS 


88  LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 

G  is  a  galvanized  iron  pail  or  bucket,  containing 
the  carbide  of  calcium. 

H  is  a  similar  bucket;  containing  water. 

I  is  a  handle,  controlling  a  valve  in  the  bottom  of 
the  water-bucket  and  reaching  the  top  of  the  bucket. 

The  return  bend  (J)  is  screwed  off  and  water  is 
poured  in  until  the  lower  tank  (A')  is  full,  leaving 
the  upper  tank  (A)  nearly  or  quite  empty.  This 
supply  of  water  is  permanent.  This  introduction  of 
water  will  be  accomplished  best  when  the  lid  (C)  of 
the  generator  is  removed  and  the  clamp  (F)  lies 
horizontal,  which  will  furnish  a  vent  for  the  air  in 
tank  A'. 

The  pail  G,  partially  filled  with  carbide  of  cal- 
cium, is  placed  in  the  generator  first.  The  handle 
I  being  turned,  the  water  in  the  pail  H  will  run 
slowly  down  into  the  pail  containing  the  carbide, 
and  gas  will  immediately  begin  to  generate.  The 
cover  C  should  be  placed  in  position  and  fastened 
with  the  clamp  F  immediately  after  opening  the 
valve  I. 

The  gas  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  the  water 
in  contact  with  the  carbide  will  accumulate  on  the 
surface  of  the  water  in  the  tank  A',  and  the  water 
will  all  be  forced  up  into  the  tank  A.  The  tank  A' 
will  be  full  of  gas,  and  the  tank  A  full  of  water. 

The  gas  is  now  ready  for  use. 

A  pressure-gauge  is  located  inside  the  building 
lighted,  at  any  convenient  point  from  which  may  be 
determined  by  a  glance,  at  any  moment,  how  much 
gas  remains  in  the  machine.  A  pressure-regulator 


GENERATORS 


located  within  the  building  lighted  insures  the  deliv- 
ery of  the  gas  to  the  burners  at  a  proper  pressure. 

The  Napheys  Generator. — In  the  upper  sec- 
tion of  the  steel  tank  is  suspended  a  cylindrical  steel 


FIG.  25.     Napheys  Generator. 

cage.  The  cage  is  supported  by  a  shaft  which  passes 
through  a  stuffing-box  (X)  and  has  attached  to  it  a 
large  gear-wheel.  This  in  turn  is  geared  to  a  crank, 


90  LIGHTING  BY  ACETYLENE 

and  turning  the  latter  slowly  revolves  the  cage. 
Carbide  is  placed  into  the  cage  through  ports  A,  A, 
and  the  slide  doors  I,  I,  which  are  then  slid  back  into 
place,  and  then  the  ports  A,  A  clamped,  so  as  to  be 
air-tight. 

The  auxiliary  reservoir  K  is  supplied  with  water 
from  any  available  source,  either  the  city  supply  or 
house  tank.  Salt  is  placed  therein  to  prevent  freez- 
ing, if  the  water  is  exposed  during  cold  weather. 
Water  falling  by  gravity  passes  through  cock  M, 
automatic-regulator  L,  check-valve  F,  cock  N,  and 
pipe  G  to  sprinkler-pipe  R,  R.  The  latter  should 
be  perfectly  level,  so  as  to  spray  all  parts  of  the 
carbide  evenly.  As  the  water  comes  in  contact 
with  the  carbide  it  is  rapidly  decomposed  and  acety- 
lene generated.  Cock  T  is  then  opened  to  allow 
the  air  contained  in  the  generator  to  escape.  This 
accomplished,  cock  T  must  be  closed.  The  acety- 
lene finds  exit  through  pipe  W,  passing  through 
valve  E,  and  the  gas-pressure  regulator  G  to  H, 
where  house  connection  is  made.  It  also  operates 
the  indicator  C,  and,  if  pressure  should  for  any  rea- 
son become  too  high,  would  escape  through  the 
safety-valve  D.  As  the  pressure  rises  in  the  tank 
it  correspondingly  rises  in  water-pipe  Q  and  the 
automatic-regulator  L.  When  a  certain  pressure 
is  reached,  the  regulator  L  automatically  cuts  off 
the  water-supply,  preventing  any  further  admission 
of  water  upon  the  carbide. 

Each  day  the  cage  should  be  turned  over.  This 
allows  the  residuum  (slaked  lime)  which  has  accumu- 


GENERATORS  91 

lated  on  top  to  fall  through  the  cage  to  the  bottom 
of  the  generator.  From  there  it  is  withdrawn 
through  port  B. 

The  openings  in  the  safety-valve  and  mercury 
blow-off  are  to  be  piped  out-doors.  A  whistle  may 
be  attached  to  the  end  of  the  pipes  if  desired,  so  that 
in  case  either  are  brought  into  operation  instant  no- 
tice will  be  given  and  the  disarrangement  stopped. 

The  Wallace  Generator  (Fig.  26)  has  been 
used  to  a  limited  extent  in  this  country. 

It  consists  of  a  cast-iron  retort — shown  at  the  left 
of  the  cut — closed  by  a  door  bearing  upon  a  rubber 
gasket,  a  gasometer,  water-supply  kept  at  constant 
level  by  a  ball-float  valve,  a  cooling-coil  within  the 
reservoir  through  which  the  gas  flows  on  its  way  to 
the  holder,  and  a  pair  of  water-seal  safety  devices, 
one  below  the  retort  and  one  at  the  bottom  of  the 
gasometer. 

The  generator  is  charged  by  placing  in  the  retort 
a  pan  containing  about  fifteen  pounds  of  carbide. 
The  door  is  closed  and  the  cock  leading  to  the 
gasometer  through  the  cooling-coil  is  opened. 

The  water-valve  is  then  opened,  allowing  water 
to  spray  upon  the  carbide. 

A  heavy,  annular  weight  suspended  over  the  ga- 
someter is  lifted  by  the  rising  bell  at  a  certain  point 
in  its  travel.  When  this  happens,  the  pressure  of  gas 
in  the  retort  is  somewhat  increased,  and,  as  the  level 
of  water  in  the  reservoir  is  very  slightly  above  the 
top  of  the  retort,  its  flow  is  arrested. 

A  pressure-gauge  is  attached  to  the  machine,  which 


LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 


FIG.  26.      Wallace  Generator. 


GENERATORS 


93 


is  also  safeguarded  against  excessive  pressure  by  the 
water-seals  contained  in  the  two  safety-cans. 


FIG.  27.     The   "Criterion"    Generator. 

The  "Criterion"  Generator  (Fig.  27).— This 
generator  consists  of  a  stand  for  carrying  the  car- 
bide-holders and  a  gasometer  for  regulating  the 
supply  of  water,  keeping  the  gas  pressure  constant 
and  taking  care  of  the  surplus  gas.  A  condenser 


94  LIGHTING   BY  ACETYLENE 

for  cooling  the  gas  is  at  the  base  of  the  gasometer. 
The  water-regulator  is  placed  on  the  side  of  the 
gasometer,  from  which  the  water  supply  is  taken, 
except  in  large  generators,  in  which  a  separate  water 
tank  is  used. 

The  carbide-holders  are  made  in  various  sizes  and 
are  attached  to  the  stand  by  pipes  which  radiate 
from  a  central  upright,  but  each  holder  is  on  a 
different  level  from  the  others;  four,  eight,  or  twelve 
of  these  holders,  according  to  size,  can  be  conve- 
niently arranged  in  sets  of  four,  one  set  above  the 
other,  the  gasometer  being  of  the  same  capacity  for 
any  number  of  holders  of  a  given  size. 

As  the  gas  is  used,  the  gasometer  descends,  the 
water-regulator  is  opened  and  water  is  admitted  to 
the  stand  and  flows  into  one  of  the  carbide-holders. 
In  the  small  generators  the  gas  passes  into  the  stand 
by  the  same  pipe  through  which  the  water  enters 
the  holder,  then  into  the  gasometer  and  to  the 
burners.  If  an  excess  of  gas  is  formed,  the  gasom- 
eter rises  and  the  supply  of  water  is  automatically 
shut  off. 

When  the  carbide  in  one  of  the  holders  is  ex- 
hausted, the  water  rises  into  the  next  holder. 

In  case  of  too  sudden  generation  of  gas  the  water 
instantly  stops  flowing  into  the  holder,  because  the 
rush  of  gas  over  the  water  in  the  same  pipe  holds 
the  water  back  and  prevents  the  formation  of  gas 
until  wanted. 


GENERATORS 


95 


SECOND    CLASS. 


Generator  of  Allemans  &  Stemmer  (Fig. 
28). — A  funnel-shaped  vessel  (G),  having  a  gas-tight 
cover,  depends  into  a  closed  case  (T).  The  carbide  is 


FIG.  28.     Generator  of  AllemanS  &  Stemmer. 


96 


LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 


inserted  in  a  conical  basket.  Water  from  an  elevated 
reservoir  enters  T  until  the  carbide  is  reached, 
when  the  pressure  of  the  gas 
generated  regulates  the  supply. 
The  conical  mass  of  carbide  is 
intended  to  equalize  the  pro- 
duction of  gas  by  bringing  a 
larger  surface  into  action  as  the 
carbide  is  more  and  more  ex- 
hausted. 

d'Arsonval  has  designed  a 
remarkably  good  generator  for 
experimental  use.  It  consists 
(Fig.  29)  of  an  outer  case  con- 
taining a  bell.  Within  the  bell 
is  hung  a  basket  of  carbide,  in- 
troduced through  a  water-sealed 
cover.  The  water  in  the  gasom- 
eter is  covered  with  a  layer  of 
oil.  When  the  bell  sinks,  the  car- 
bide  suspended  from  it  enters  the 
V3  water,  giving  off  gas,  and,  under 

08  a   constant  rate  of  use,  it    soon 

finds  a  position  in  which   it  re- 
mains stationary,  the  production 
being    then    just    sufficient    to 
supply  the  demand. 

When  gas  is  no  longer  used,  the  production  con- 
tinues for  a  short  time,  the  bell  is  lifted,  and  with  it 
the  carbide.  The  oil,  as  the  carbide  passes  through 
it,  displaces  the  water  which  had  previously  been 


FIG.  29.     d'Arsonval 
Generator. 


GENERATORS 


97 


absorbed,  preventing  further  action.  When  the 
carbide  is  lifted  entirely  out  of  the  liquid,  the  layer 
of  oil,  by  preventing  evaporation  of  the  water,  keeps 
the  moisture  from  slowly  producing  gas.  Genera- 
tors on  the  same  principle,  without  the  layer  of  oil, 


FIG.  30.     Gabe  Generator. 


are  much  used  for  lantern-work,  but  the  gradual 
evolution  of  gas  when  not  in  use  is  a  serious  draw- 
back and  is  entirely  overcome  by  this  simple  ex- 
pedient. 


98 


LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 


FIG.  31.     Gabe  Generator. 

The  Gabe  Generator  exists  in  two  forms: 
The  industrial  model  (Fig.  30)  has  a  basket  of  car- 
bide hung  in  a  bell  contained  in  a  large  outer  case 
filled  with  water.  The  operation  is  obvious.  The 
gas  goes  through  a  washer  to  a  gasometer,  or  is 


GENERATORS  99 

taken  directly  to  the  mains.  In  the  smaller  model 
(Fig.  31),  the  carbide  is  contained  in  a  number  of 
baskets  in  the  top  of  a  rising  and  falling  bell.  One 
after  another  is  pushed  down  by  means  of  the  rod 
from  which  it  is  suspended  until  it  enters  the  water. 
When  all  are  exhausted,  the  generator  must  be  put 
out  of  service  while  being  recharged.  The  simplic- 
ity and  cheapness  of  this  type  of  machines  recom- 
mend them  to  experimenters,  but  the  fact  that  the 
bell  must  be  opened  and  any  gas  remaining  therein 
lost  before  recharging  makes  them  unfit  for  practi- 
cal application  on  an  extended  scale. 


THIRD    CLASS. 

The  carbide  chute  machine  seems  to  offer  the  best 
solution  of  the  problems  involved  in  making  a  con- 
tinuously acting  generator,  because  in  it  the  carbide 
may  be  added  and  the  lime  removed  without  ad- 
mitting air  or  interrupting  the  production  of  gas. 
Moreover,  since  there  is  always  a  relatively  large 
quantity  of  water  surrounding  the  carbide,  no  heat- 
ing takes  place. 

Some  of  the  earlier  generators  of  this  class  required 
the  use  of  granulated  or  powdered  carbide,  and  al- 
though this  form  is  not  now  in  vogue,  these  machines 
are  interesting.  They  will  be  first  described. 

The  Marechal  Generator  (Fig.  32)  consists  of 
a  closed  case  (B)  on  which  is  mounted  the  hopper 
(A)  filled  with  powdered  carbide.  A  sort  of  stop- 
cock (R),  having  a  pocket  in  its  circumference,  is  ro- 


100 


LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 


tated  by  the  movement  of  the  piston  (P),  which  the 
fluctuating   pressure   of  the  gas   causes.     At  each 


FlG.  32.     Marechal  Generator. 

movement  a  small  quantity  of  carbide  is  delivered 
to  the  tube  (G)  and  by  the  movement  of  the  link  (S) 


GENERATORS 


101 


is  allowed  to  fall  into  the  water  at  the  base  of  the 
machine. 

The  Thivert  Generator  (Fig.  33)  has  a  hopper 
(A)  and  reservoir  (C)  carried  by  the  bell  of  a  gasom- 


FlG.  33.     Thivert  Generator. 


102 


LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 


eter.  The  mouth  of  the  reservoir  is  kept  closed 
by  means  of  a  disc  (F)  and  weighted  lever  (H). 

Upon  the  descent  of  the  bell,  the  weight  rests  on 
the  bottom,  raising  the  lever  and  depositing  a  small 
amount  of  the  pulverized  carbide  in  the  water.  As 
soon  as  the  bell  rises,  the  cover  (F)  is  closed  by  the 
weight.  Deposited  lime  is  drawn  off  through  the 
large  cock  S. 

The  Bouneau  Generator  (Fig.  34)  is  on  the 
same  plan,  except  that  the  weight  is  attached  di- 
rectly to  a  conical  plug  which 
closes  the  mouth  of  the  carbide 
receiver.  When  the  bell  sinks 
the  plug  is  lifted,  letting  car- 
bide fall  into  the  water. 

Leroy  &  Janson  have  placed 
the  hopper  and  valve  within 
the  gasometer  in  order  to 
avoid  the  varying  weight  on 
the  bell  which  results  from 
carrying  the  carbide  on  that 
FIG.  34.  Bouneau  Generator,  member  of  the  apparatus  (Fig. 

35).     As  the  bell  descends,  a 

rod  (L)  is  pressed,  opening  the  valve  (M),  which 
allows  carbide  to  issue.  The  gas  passes  by  tube 
(D)  to  a  drier  (E)  rilled  partly  with  pumice-stone  and 
having  a  layer  of  calcium  carbide,  in  lumps,  in  the 
upper  part. 

The  Lequeux  Generator  is  made  in  several 
ways.  A  simple  form  for  industrial  use  is  shown  in 
Fig.  36.  One  or  more  inclined  tubes  communicating 


GENERATORS 


103 


through  a  water-seal  with  a  gasometer  are  divided 
by  a  central  partition  extending  from  the  top  down- 
ward  to  a  point  well  below  the  level  of  the  water 
contained  in  each.  Carbide  is  dropped  by  hand 
through  an  opening  on  the  lower  side  of  the  parti- 
s 


GASOMETER 


FIG.  35.     Leroy  &  Janson 
Generator. 


FIG.    36.     Lequeux   Gener- 
ator. 


tion  at  the  top  of  the  tube.  It  falls  to  the  bottom, 
and  the  gas  which  is  disengaged,  rising  vertically, 
enters  the  part  above  the  partition  B,  from  which 
it  issues  by  tube  C. 

Waste  lime  is  removed  through  the  opening  E. 

Another  form  is  shown  in  Fig.  37,  in  which  the 
chute  K  projects  from  the  side  of  the  generator  A. 
A  cover,  closed  by  a  water-seal,  closes  the  generator, 


104 


LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 


Lequeux  Generator. 


which  contains,  at  the  bottom,  a  bucket  for  remov- 
ing the  lime  bodily.  Carbide  in  lumps  is  dropped 
down  the  chute  K  into  the  bucket.  Gas  accumulates 
in  B  while  the  water  is  displaced  into  the  chute. 
C  is  the  delivery-pipe,  dipping  below  the  surface  of 


GENERATORS 


105 


FIG.  38.     Lequeux  Generator. 


io6 


LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 


FIG.  39.     Societe  le  Gaz  Acetylene. 


GENERATORS 


ID/ 


water  in  a  combined  seal  and  washer  contained  in 
the  base  of  the  generator.  The  exit-pipe  F  may  be 
joined  to  the  burners  by  a  rubber  tube.  This  gen- 
erator, which  is  one  of  the  best,  is  shown  in  combi- 
nation with  a  gasometer  in  Fig.  38.  In  this  ar- 
rangement the  water-seal  (G)  is 
multiple. 

La  Socfete  le  Caz  Acety- 
lene has  built  a  larger  and  more 
important  generator,  shown   in 
Fig-  39,  to  be  used  in  conjunc- 
tion   with   a    gasometer.      The 
drawing  is  self-explanatory.     A 
central   tube    (E)  answers  as  a 
chute,    below    which    there    is 
placed  a  conical  deflector  (C). 
The  generator  is  filled  to  the 
line  D  with  water.    The  vessel 
B,   in    which    the    generator 
rests,  is  filled  with  water.  The 
lime  is  drawn  off  through  R. 

The  Patin  Generator 
(Fig.  40)  differs  from  the  Le- 
queux  only  in  having  its  chute 
filled  with  oil,  which  floats  on 

the  water  and  delays  the  disengagement  of  gas  from 
the  carbide  dropped  into  it.  The  plan  is  of  doubtful 
advantage,  as  the  carbide  is  constantly  carrying 
oil  into  the  generator,  where  it  is  broken  up  and 
changed  into  a  disagreeable  scum,  which  is  difficult 
to  remove  and  dirty  to  handle.  This  generator  is 


FIG.  40.     Patin  Generator. 


io8 


LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 


conical  at  its  bottom,  where  it  communicates,  by 
means  of  a  large  cock,  with  a  lower  vessel  filled 
with  water,  into  which  the  larger  part  of  the  lime 


FIG.  41.     Seguin  and  de  Perrodil  Generator. 

drops.  When  sufficient  deposit  has  accumulated, 
the  cock  is  closed  and  the  lime  removed  from  the 
settling-tank. 


GENERATORS 


109 


The   Seguin    and    tie    Perrodil     Generator 

consists  (Fig-.  42)  of  a  pair  of  concentric  cylindrical 
vessels  (A  and  B)  filled  with  water.  A  chute  (C)  pro- 
vided  with  a  funnel  (E)  permits  the  introduction  of 
the  carbide,  which  falls  into  the  basket  G.  The  car- 


FIG.  42.     Bertrand-Taillet  Generator. 

bide  is  placed  in  a  distributor  (D)  turning1  on  an  axis 
and  provided  with  a  ratchet-and-pawl  mechanism 
operated  by  the  fall  of  the  gasometer  bell.  Each 
time  the  bell  descends,  the  lever  T  engages  with  a 
tooth  of  the  ratchet  D,  whereby  the  wheel  is  rotated 
until  one  of  its  compartments  is  brought  over  the 


HO 


LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 


chute  and  the  contents  dropped  into  the  generator. 
This  is  a  truly  continuous  machine  in  every  sense. 
It  suffices  to  keep  the  distributor  pockets  filled  with 

carbide,  and  to  occasion- 
ally remove  the  deposit  of 
lime,  to  keep  it  in  operation 
indefinitely. 

The  Bertrand-Taillet 
Generator  is  made  in  two 
forms.  One  requires  a  sep- 
arate gasometer  of  con- 
siderable size,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  42. 

A  vessel  ( R )  is  sur- 
mounted by  a  dome  (O) 
having  a  tubulure  (E)  for 
the  introduction  of  carbide 
and  a  screw-operated  valve 
closing  its  mouth.  The 
carbide  is  emptied  wholly 
or  in  part  into  the  water 
by  manoeuvring  the  valve- 
wheel. 

The  other  form  is  shown 
in  Fig.  43.  It  consists  of 
a  gasometer  having  in  its 

bell  a  number  of  pockets  closed  on  the  outside  by 
tight  covers,  and  by  hinged  bottoms  within  the 
bell.  The  bottoms  are  held  shut  by  weights  hang- 
ing from  chains  of  various  lengths,  so  that  the  con- 
tents of  the  pockets  are  deposited  in  the  water  suc- 
cessively by  the  repeated  descents  of  the  bell. 


FIG.  43. 
Bertrand-Taillet  Generator. 


ACETYLENE  LAMPS 

MANY  forms  of  portable  acetylene  lamps  have  been 
designed,  but  none,  thus  far,  has  been  very  success- 
ful. While  the  light  is  in  every  way  desirable,  there 
is  some  fear  of  the  lamp  itself  existing  in  most 
minds,  and  even  if  this  is  overcome  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  the  best  acetylene  lamps  are  troublesome 
to  manage.  They  require  a  greater  degree  of  intel- 
ligence for  their  successful  handling  than  do  the  or- 
dinary oil-lamps,  and,  in  consequence,  it  is  scarcely 
advisable  to  trust  servants  to  keep  them  in  operative 
condition.  In  addition  to  these  drawbacks  to  their 
use,  there  is  the  unavoidable  odor  from  the  spent 
carbide,  which  diffuses  itself  throughout  the  room 
in  which  the  lamp  is  recharged.  In  spite  of  these 
objections,  there  are  lamps  on  the  market  which  are 
most  attractive  in  appearance  and  for  which  the 
manufacturers  claim  immunity  from  danger  or  odor. 

In  a  well-made  acetylene  lamp  the  danger  from 
fire  or  explosion  should  be  very  slight,  for  the  entire 
amount  of  carbide  used  for  one  charge  does  not 
usually  weigh  more  than  a  few  ounces.  This,  if  the 
gas  from  it  was  all  generated  at  once,  could  produce 
not  more  than  three  or  four  cubic  feet ;  and,  as  the 
rate  of  generation  is  at  a  maximum  rarely  more 

in 


112 


LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 


than  enough  to  supply  one  burner,  the  chance  for 
dangerous  leakage  is  small. 

Again,  in  case  of  explosion  of 
the  gas  in  the  lamp,  the  shock 
would  scatter  the  carbide  and 
water  harmlessly  about,  whereas 
the  explosion  of  an  oil-lamp  is 
generally  followed  by  a  shower 
of  burning  oil. 

Lamp  of  Decretet  and  Le- 
jeune  (Fig.  44). — The  carbide  is 
placed  in  a  closed  generator  (G) 
in  a  perforated  basket  (S).     The 
generator  is  placed  in  the  body 
of  the  lamp,  which  is  filled  with 
water.    The  water,  which  serves 
both  for  cooling  and  for  generat- 
ing the  gas  from  the   carbide, 
enters  the  generator  by  the  tube 
D,  rises  to  the  top  of  the  car- 
bide and  drips  thereon.   As  pres- 
sure   accumulates,    the    water- 
supply  is  arrested  and  the  valve 
at  the  top  of  tube  D  closes  by 
its   own  weight.     Re  is  a  safe- 
ty-valve.     Two    funnel-shaped 

FIG.  44.   Decretet  and       plates  (c/i)  are  supported  above 
Lejeune  Lamp.  the    carbide-holder,    which    re- 

ceive the    moisture  carried  off 

by  the  gas,  and  from  which  it  drips  back  upon  the 
carbide. 


ACETYLENE   LAMPS 


Lamp  of  Cossart  and  Chevallier  (Fig.  45). — 
This  is  one  of  the  simplest  and  best  lamps  yet  de- 
signed. The  water  which  is  contained  in  the  upper 
chamber  falls  drop  by  drop  through  the  bent  capillary 
tubes  upon  a  mass  of  carbide  placed  in  the  bottom  of 
the  lamp.  The  amount  of  water  is  so  small  that  the 
lime  is  reduced  in  the  form  of  a  dry  powder.  About 
five  ounces  of  carbide  forms  the  charge.  In  case  of 
increased  pressure  the  flow  of  water 
is  arrested,  and  in  the  event  of  an 
abnormal  increase  the  gas  would 
pass  out  and  escape  by  way  of  the 
capillary  tubes.  It  is  said  that, 
in  full  operation,  the  temperature 
of  the  carbide  never  rises  above 
125°  F.,  and  that  the  water-supply 
is  so  sensitive  that,  as  the  flame  is 
turned  down,  the  drops  fall  less  and 
less  frequently  until  they  stop,  when 
the  flame  is  turned  out.  It  is  also 
claimed  that  the  production  of  gas 
stops  at  the  same  moment.  There 
are  no  valves,  cocks,  or  other  com- 
plications. Nothing  more  simple 
could  be  desired. 

The  Trouv^  Lamp  (Fig.  46)  consists  of  an  outer 
vase  within  which  is  a  small  stationary  bell,  and  in 
that  is  hung  a  basket  of  carbide,  which  may  be  raised 
or  lowered  by  a  handle  seen  on  the  right  of  the  lamp. 
As  gas  is  produced,  the  water  is  driven  out  of  the 
inner  bell  and  rises  in  the  outer  vase.  The  basket 


FIG.  45.  Gossart  and 
Chevallier  Lamp. 


114 


LIGHTING  BY  ACETYLENE 


of  carbide  must  be  occasionally  lowered  a  little 
deeper  into  the  water.  A  layer  of  oil  on  the  water 
within  the  bell,  on  the  principle  of  d'Arsonval's 


FIG.  46.     Trouve  Lamp. 


FIG.  47.     Ttirr  Lamp. 


generator,  would  certainly  improve  the  steadiness  ol 
action  of  this  lamp. 

In  the  Tlirr  lamp  this  has  been  done  (Fig.  47). 


ACETYLENE   LAMPS 


The  lamp  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  Trouve,  and 

the  basket  of  carbide  is  suspended  by  a  cord,  but 
otherwise  the  arrangement  is  the  same. 

The  lamp  devised  by  Captain  Nou  is  in  reality  a 
small  gasometer  and  generator  (Fig.  48). 


FIG.  48.    Nou  Lamp. 


FIG.  49.      Claude  and  Hess  Lamp. 


It  is  said  to  be  very  steady  in  action,  but  large  and 
unwieldy.  Within  the  outer  case  is  a  small  gasom- 
eter (D)  with  annular  water-seal  and  the  usual  bell 


Il6  LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 

(C).  As  the  bell  rises  and  falls  a  moulded  stick  of 
carbide  (A)  dips  into  and  is  withdrawn  from  the 
cup  of  water  (B).  R  is  a  reservoir,  from  which  B 
draws  its  supply. 

Lamp  of  Claude  and  Hess.— This  lamp  (Fig. 
49)  has  given  excellent  results,  and  were  it  not  for 
the  doubtful  keeping  qualities  of  pulverized  carbide, 
as  well  as  the  uncertainty  of  getting  it  of  good  qual- 
ity in  the  first  place,  would  be  the  best  lamp  yet 
devised. 

Its  construction  is  simple.  An  outer  vase  con- 
tains water  in  its  lower  portion,  while  within  its  neck 
is  suspended  a  funnel  for  holding  the  pulverized 
carbide. 

A  conical  plug  (C)  closes  the  opening  of  the  funnel. 
From  it  a  rod  passes  through  the  cover  of  the  fun- 
nel and  is  attached  to  the  centre  of  a  thick  rubber 
diaphragm  (J,  J),  which  forms  the  air-tight  cover  of 
the  lamp.  Above  the  diaphragm  a  spring  (R)  presses 
down  upon  it. 

When  the  diaphragm  sinks,  the  plug  C  is  pushed 
down,  allowing  carbide  to  fall  into  the  water,  and,  as 
soon  as  gas  is  generated,  the  ensuing  pressure  pushes 
up  the  diaphragm  and  stops  the  hole  through  which 
the  carbide  issues.  The  gas  reaches  the  burner 
through  the  central  tube  around  which  the  spring 
is  coiled. 

A  continuous  slight  working  up  and  down  of  the 
diaphragm  takes  place  as  the  lamp  burns,  which 
dusts  the  carbide  slowly  and  regularly  into  the 
water. 


ACETYLENE    LAMPS  1 17 

The  Buffmgton  Acetylene  Lamp  consists 
of  a  generator  and  burner  arranged  in  the  form  of  a 
student-lamp.  The  upper  half  of  the  generator  con- 
tains a  water-reservoir,  which  is  provided  at  its 
bottom  with  a  needle-valve. 

The  carbide,  enclosed  in  a  cartridge,  is  intro- 
duced into  the  lower  part  of  the  generator  by  re- 
moving the  bottom.  A  water-seal,  contained  in 
the  removable  part,  prevents  a  dangerous  rise  of 
pressure. 

The  lamp  is  started,  stopped  and  regulated  by 
means  of  a  small  lever  on  top  of  the  generator, 
which  controls  the  water-supply. 

The  lamp  burns  without  odor,  and  the  light  is 
very  satisfactory. 

The  Electro,  a  compact  and  light  acetylene 
bicycle  lamp,  is  shown  by  Fig.  50. 

The  spherical  reservoir  is  filled  with  water,  which, 
by  means  of  a  needle-valve,  is  allowed  to  drop  upon 
the  cartridge  of  carbide  contained  in  the  lower 
cylinder. 

The  gas  is  consumed  in  a  small  burner  located  in 
the  focus  of  a  parabolic  reflector. 

The  lamp  is  charged  by  unscrewing  the  milled 
bottom  portion  of  the  generator,  inserting  a  car- 
tridge containing  about  an  ounce  of  carbide,  in  grains, 
and  filling  the  reservoir  with  water  through  a  hole 
in  the  top. 

It  is  intended  that  the  gas  shall  be  generated  as 
used,  no  gasometer  or  other  compensating  device 
being  used. 


Il8  LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 

A  fairly  close  regulation  may  be  obtained  by 
means  of  the  needle-valve. 

The  quantity  of  carbide  is  so  small  that  its  tem- 
perature is  not  seriously  raised  by  the  disengagement 
of  acetylene.  The  lamp  is  designed  to  burn  for 
three  hours  at  each  charging. 

It  seems  only  fair  to  state  that  acetylene  lamps  are 
regarded  with  suspicion  by  many  insurance  com- 


FIG.  50. 

panics,  and  that  some  refuse  risks  on  property  in 
which  they  are  operated. 

The  intending  purchaser  of  any  acetylene  appa- 
ratus should  therefore  assure  his  position  by  obtain- 
ing the  consent  of  the  company  which  writes  his 
insurance  to  the  use  of  the  generator  or  lamp  which 
he  expects  to  install. 


ACETYLENE  BURNERS 

THE  ordinary  house  gas-burners,  consuming  from 
2  to  10  feet  of  gas  per  hour,  will  not  serve  for  light- 
ing by  means  of  acetylene.  While  an  ordinary  5-foot 
burner  with  a  good  quality  of  illuminating  gas  is 
rated  at  i6-candle  power,  the  consumption  of  a  half- 
foot  per  hour  of  acetylene  properly  burned  gives  a 
flame  of  fully  25  candles. 

Acetylene  is  a  gas  so  rich  in  carbon,  moreover, 
that  special  forms  of  burners  are  necessary  for  con- 
suming it  without  smoke  and  with  a  maxim  of  lumi- 
nosity. 

A  half-foot  burner  of  the  ordinary  type  gives  a 
fairly  good  light  with  acetylene  for  a  time,  but  it 
soon  becomes  clogged  with  a  deposit  of  carbon  ;  and, 
while  the  flame  when  burning  at  a  maximum  is  very 
satisfactory,  it  is  not  so  bright  as  that  given  by  spe- 
cial burners,  nor  can  it  be  turned. down  without 
smoking. 

A  burner  which  aims  to  avoid  the  deposition  of 
carbon  in  the  gas-outlets  is  made  as  shown  in  the 
section,  Fig  51. 

In  it  the  gas-exits  are  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch 
apart  and  are  inclined  towards  each  other  at  an  angle 
of  90°.  The  exits  themselves  are  very  small,  but  a 

119 


I2O 


LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 


counter-bore  enlarges  their  outer  orifices  to  a  diam- 
eter of  about  a  thirty-second  of  an  inch. 

The  issuing  jets  of  gas  impinge  on  each  other,  pro- 
ducing a  flat  flame.  It  is  expected  that  the  rush  of 
gas  through  the  air  shall  carry  with  it  sufficient 
oxygen  for  perfect  combustion,  and  that  the  enlarged 
outer  orifices  shall  not  be  clogged  by  a  slight  de- 
posit of  carbon. 

This  burner,  in  spite  of  these  precautions,  deposits 
carbon  on  that  part  which  is  between  the  jets,  and 
which  is  comparatively  cool. 


FIG.  51. 


FIG.  52. 


The  carbon  deposit  grows  in  the  course  of  an  hour 
to  such  size  as  to  deflect  the  jets,  when  the  flame  be- 
gins to  smoke. 

A  better  form  has  two  slender  tubes  which,  issu- 
ing from  a  common  base,  curve  toward  each  other 
(Fig-  52). 

The  flame  is  of  the  same  character  as  that  of  the 
last-mentioned  burner,  but  the  deposit  of  carbon  is 


ACETYLENE   BURNERS  121 

prevented  so  long  as  the  burner  is  not  turned  down 
low. 

In  other  burners  these  jets  have  variously  shaped 
apertures  (Fig.  53),  but  none  causes  a  sufficient  mixt- 
ure of  air  with  the  flame  to  give  the  best  results. 

Various  expedients  have  been  suggested  for  dilut- 


FIG.  53. 

ing  the  gas.  Among  early  experimenters  the  bold 
attempt  was  made  to  mix  air  with  the  acetylene  in 
the  gas-holder,  but  this  having  resulted  in  several 
accidents  through  the  ignition  of  the  explosive 
mixture  so  produced,  carbonic  acid  and,  afterward, 
nitrogen  were  tried. 

The  last  gas  gave  the  best  results,  but  was 
troublesome  to  prepare  and  increased  the  expense  of 
operation. 

Finally,  however,  by  adopting  the  principle  of  the 
Bunsen  burner  (Fig.  54),  it  was  found  possible  to 
mix  any  desired  proportion  of  air  with  the  gas  as  it 


122 


LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 


issued  from  the  burner.  A  further  development 
consisted  in  making  each  burner  double,  with  jets 
inclined  toward  each  other,  as  in 
the  types  last- mentioned.  This 
burner,  which  has  been  patented 
in  this  country,  is  nearly  all  that 
can  be  desired. 

Its  flame  is  intensely  bright,  it 
can  be  turned  down  without  smok- 
ing, and  deposits  no  carbon  unless 
left  turned  down  very  low.  In 
that  case  a  little  ring  of  hard  car- 
bon is  likely  to  form  at  the  exits 
of  the  jets,  but  the  burner,  even 
then,  does  not  smoke. 

The   burners   are   of   the  form 
shown  in  Fig.  55,  being  of  brass, 
with  so-called  lava  tips.     The  tips 
are  veritable   little  Bunsen  burn- 
ers.     A    central    small    aperture 
leads  from  the  base  of  the  tip  to 
a  point  opposite  the  constricted 
neck  of  the  burner,  beyond  which 
point   the    bore    is   considerably 
enlarged.    From  the  constriction, 
four  inclined  apertures  enter  the 
enlarged  bore. 
From  this  construction  it  follows  that  the  gas,  in 
issuing  from  the  small  jet  into  the  larger  bore,  causes 
a  slight  reduction  of  pressure  therein,  which  induces 
a  flow  of  air  through  the  side  openings. 


FIG.  54. 


ACETYLENE   BURNERS  123 

The  incoming  air  and  gas  mingle  and  burn  on 
leaving  the  tip.  The  two  jets,  meeting  each  other, 
flatten  out  into  a  fish-tail  shape,  and  in  so  doing  ex- 
cite a  still  further  flow  of  air  to  their  surfaces. 

When  the  burner  is  turned  fully  on,  the  luminous 
flame  does  not  extend  quite  to  the  tips  of  the  jets. 
The  mixture  of  gas  and  air  next  to  the  jets  is  not  at 
a  suitable  temperature  for  depositing  carbon. 

The  burner  illustrated  in  Fig.  55  is  the  invention 


FIG.  55. 

of  Mr.  Edward  J.  Dolan,  of  Philadelphia,  who  has 
devoted  much  time  to  experimental  work  on  the 
combustion  of  acetylene.  Other  forms  of  burners 
invented  by  Mr.  Dolan  are  illustrated  in  the  follow- 
ing figures: 

Fig.  56  shows  a  burner  which  has  a  lava  tip  (A) 
provided  with  a  deep,  vertical  slot  (B).  A  small 
passage  (C)  delivers  the  acetylene  to  the  slot  (B)  at 
an  acute  angle.  The  gas  impinges  on  the  wall  of 
the  slot  (B),  and,  in  its  passage  to  the  top  of  the 
burner,  draws  along  with  it  a  current  of  air.  The 
mixture  of  air  and  acetylene  burns  in  a  fish-tail  flame 


124 


LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 


without  smoke.  The  gas-orifice  is  below  the  point 
at  which  carbon  can  be  deposited. 

Fig.  57  shows  the  same  burner  having  two  gas- 
outlets.  It  is  probably  a  better  form. 

Fig.  58  is  a  burner  for  consuming  a  larger  quan- 
tity of  acetylene  than  is  generally  burnt  in  one  unit. 
The  tip  (G)  of  this  burner  has  two  small  Bunsen 
type  of  jets  inclined  toward  each  other,  and,  in  addi- 


FIG.  56. 


FIG.  57. 


tion  thereto,  is  provided  with  a  vertical  gas-outlet 
situated  between  the  other  two. 

A  gas-heater  by   the  same  inventor  is  shown  in 

Fig.  59- 

The  entire  structure  consists,  substantially,  of  two 
annular  castings,  of  which  i  represents  the  base  and 
outer  portion,  and  2  represents  the  inner  ring,  form- 


ACETYLENE   BURNERS 


125 


ing  the  completed  burner.  The  inner  ring  screws 
into  the  outer  by  a  suitable  thread,  as  at  6.  There 
is  an  annular  gas-chamber  (7),  formed  by  suitable  cir- 
cular slots  cut  in  these  two  rings,  which,  when  joined 


FIG.  58. 

together,  make  the  chamber  indicated.  This  com* 
municates  with  the  gas-supply  pipe  (3).  The  upper 
ring  (2)  is  cast  with  a  series  of  sectors  (8)  projecting 


126 


LIGHTING  BY  ACETYLENE 


FIG.  59. 


ACETYLENE   BURNERS  12; 

above  the  horizontal  surface  of  the  ring-.  They  have 
between  them  openings  (4)  extending  down  to  such 
horizontal  surface,  and  also  transverse  slots  (5)  com- 
municating with  the  openings  or  channels  (4).  The 
small  gas-openings  (3)  are  arranged  in  the  centre  of 
the  transverse  slots  (5),  as  will  be  readily  seen  from 
the  plan,  the  inner  ring  (i)  being  suitably  cut  for  that 
purpose.  Of  course  these  gas-openings  can  be 
arranged  in  either  ring,  or  may  be  formed  between 
the  joined  rings.  By  simply  unscrewing  the  inner 
ring,  the  apparatus  is  readily  cleaned. 

In  operation,  air  is  mingled  with  the  gas  in  the 
slots  (5),  and  combustion  occurs  only  above  the 
upper  surface  of  the  joined  rings,  the  gas  burning 
there  when  mingled  with  a  suitable  quantity  of  air 
to  form  the  desired  flame.  The  material  ordinarily 
employed  for  the  structure  is  iron,  but  other  mate- 
rials may  «also  be  used. 

The  ordinary  Bunsen  burner,  made  considerably 
smaller  than  usual  and  provided  with  an  adjustable 
air-inlet,  gives  a  long,  slender,  luminous  flame,  which 
is  said  to  be  very  effective  for  groups  of  lights. 

Unless  the  outer  orifice  of  the  Bunsen  burner  is 
smaller  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  the  flame  snaps 
back  and  burns  in  the  tube.  With  a  larger  supply 
of  air,  the  true,  colorless  Bunsen  flame  is  produced 
from  acetylene,  and  is  much  hotter  than  that  of  or- 
dinary gas.  It  may  be  used  with  advantage  in  the 
laboratory  for  many  operations  which  usually  re- 
quire the  blow-pipe. 

Almost   every  conceivable    form   of   burner   and 


128  LIGHTING  BY   ACETYLENE 

tip  has  been  tried,  but  it  seems  unnecessary  to  de- 
scribe or  figure  those  which  have  been  found  unsat- 
isfactory. 

It  may  be  predicted  with  a  reasonable  degree  of 
certainty,  from  what  we  already  know  of  the  proper, 
ties  and  composition  of  acetylene,  that  it  will  be  nec- 
essary, in  all  successful  burners,  to  use  the  Bunsen 
principle  for  mingling  air  with  the  gas  as  it  leaves 
the  jet. 

Many  forms  of  burners  have  already  been  de- 
signed on  this  plan,  which  allows  considerable  lati- 
tude in  its  application. 

A  rather  wide  experience  with  acetylene  burners 
has  shown  that  the  stop-cocks  very  rapidly  cut  and 
become  leaky.  This  is  partly  due  to  the  deposition 
of  lime  carried  over  from  the  generator,  and  partly 
to  the  formation  of  acetylide  of  copper  in  the  cock 
itself. 

It  is  advisable,  and  indeed  almost  necessary,  to 
occasionally  remove  the  plugs  of  the  cocks  and  lu- 
bricate them  with  a  stiff  mixture  of  bees-wax  and 
tallow,  or  with  some  waxy  lubricant  containing 
graphite.  The  graphite  composition  used  upon  the 
chains  of  bicycles  may  with  advantage  take  the  place 
of  other  lubricant. 

Cocks  which  are  allowed  to  become  dry,  and 
which  turn  with  difficulty  in  their  sockets,  soon 
after  begin  to  leak  and  emit  the  peculiar  odor  of 
acetylene ;  and  after  this  happens  there  is  no  cure 
but  regrinding. 


AUTHOR'S   EXPERIMENTS 

THE  author's  experiments  with  generators  began 
with  a  small  apparatus  constructed  on  the  principle 
of  the  hydrogen  lighter  (Fig.  29),  in  which  a  reser- 
voir was  partly  filled  with  water  having  a  layer  of  oil 
about  six  inches  deep  floating  thereon.  A  bell  de- 
scended into  the  outer  vessel.  It  had  an  opening 
through  which  a  perforated  can,  filled  with  calcium 
carbide,  could  be  introduced  and  adjusted  in  height 
by  means  of  a  rod  passing  through  a  stuffing-box. 
This  affair  worked  remarkably  well  on  a  small  scale. 
The  oil,  into  which  the  carbide  was  lifted  by  the 
rising  bell,  effectually  displaced  the  water  and 
stopped  the  evolution  of  gas.  When  one  or  two 
burners  were  in  operation,  the  bell  descended  until 
the  carbide  was  partly  immersed  in  the  water,  the 
degree  of  immersion  being  such  as  would  supply 
the  gas  at  the  rate  used. 

In  this  respect  the  device  was  very  satisfactory, 
and  was  quite  self-regulating.  The  carbide  being 
introduced  in  a  finely  perforated  can,  the  amount  of 
lime  which  escaped  into  the  water  was  small.  The 
disadvantages  were  such  as  to  preclude  the  use  of 
the  apparatus  for  anything  more  than  experimental 
work. 

129 


130 


LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 


TIG.  60. 

In  the  first  place,  the  introduction  of  fresh  carbide 
involved  the  loss  of  the  remnant  of  gas  contained  in 
the  bell.  Secondly,  the  petroleum-oil  used  absorbed 
gas  readily,  and  as  easily  gave  it  off,  causing  a  strong 
odor  of  acetylene  to  issue  from  the  machine.  This 


AUTHOR'S  EXPERIMENTS  131 

could  be  overcome,  however,  by  having  the  oil 
within  the  bell  only  and  never  permitting  the  edge 
of  the  bell  to  rise  to  a  height  sufficient  to  allow  of  its 
escape. 

Thirdly,  the  use  of  strong  brine  was  necessary  in 
winter  to  prevent  the  freezing-up  of  the  machine, 
which  was  kept  out  of  doors. 


FIG.  6 1. 

The  use  of  oil  in  this  way  must  have  occurred  to 
many,  and  the  discovery,  only  recently,  that  the 
identical  machine  had  been  devised  a  year  earlier  in 
France  by  d'Arsonval  was  not  surprising. 

The  next  expedient  tried  was  the  immersion  of 
the  carbide  in  oil  at  the  bottom  of  a  reservoir,  and 
the  addition  of  the  water  thereto  in  a  small  stream, 
which,  sinking  through  the  oil,  attacked  the  carbide. 
The  carbide  was  contained  in  a  series  of  cans,  any 


132  LIGHTING   BY  ACETYLENE 

one  of  which  could  be  brought  under  a  stationary 
bell  in  turn,  and  there  receive  the  water  which  en- 
tered the  bell  through  a  small  pipe,  and  which  had 
its  flow  regulated  by  the  rise  and  fall  of  a  gasometer 
connected  to  the  generator  (Fig.  60). 

Uneven  production  of  gas,  bad  odor,  and  general 
mussiness  caused  this  plan  to  fail  in  practical  appli- 
cation. 

The  plan  is  unusually  attractive,  and,  with  improve- 
ments, may  yet  offer  a  simple  solution  of  the  problem 
of  the  generation  of  acetylene. 

Experiments  showed  that  it  was  not  only  desirable, 
but  necessary,  to  have  any  machine  for  generating 
acetylene  in  sufficient  quantity  for  domestic  lighting 
removed  and  quite  isolated  from  inhabited  buildings. 
Aside  from  the  possible  element  of  danger,  there  was 
the  disagreeable  odor,  which  is  quite  inseparable  from 
the  use  of  calcium  carbide.  Very  little  smell  is  no- 
ticed in  charging  a  properly  constructed  machine, 
but  the  removal  of  the  spent  lime,  always  charged 
with  a  strong  odor  of  gas,  is,  to  say  the  least,  un- 
pleasant unless  conducted  in  the  open  air.  The 
gaseous  odor  has  a  peculiarly  lingering  and  diffusive 
character.  A  little  of  it  goes  a  long  way,  and  to 
some  it  is  intensely  disagreeable.  The  isolation  of 
the  generator  means  that  it  must  be  placed  in  a 
separate  building  sufficiently  protected  from  the 
weather,  or  so  heated,  as  to  prevent  the  freezing- 
up  of  the  machine,  or  it  must  be  placed  in  a  vault 
underground. 

The  last-mentioned  proceeding  seems  the  more 


AUTHOR'S  EXPERIMENTS  133 

desirable,  since  all  danger  of  freezing  is  removed 
when  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  generator  or 
gas-holder  is  three  feet  or  so  under  the  surface  of 
the  ground  ;  and  in  addition  to  this  advantage  is  that 
of  avoiding  the  erection  of  a  separate  and  probably 
unsightly  or  undesirable  building. 

The  only  disadvantage  arising  from  this  disposi- 
tion of  the  generator  is  the  difficulty  of  removing 
the  lime  resulting  from  the  action  of  the  water  on 
the  calcium  carbide. 

The  so-called  "  chute  "  type  of  machine  lends  itself 
particularly  to  underground  use. 

The  first  machine  of  this  kind  experimented  with 
consisted  of  a  sheet-iron  cylinder  three  feet  in  diam- 
eter by  seven  in  height.  A  chute  entered  the  lower 
portion  of  the  cylinder,  which  was  buried  in  the 
ground. 

From  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder  a  two-inch  pipe 
led  with  a  gentle  curve  to  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
where  it  was  surmounted  by  a  common  pump.  An 
inverted  bell  within  the  cylinder  formed  the  gas- 
holder. 

It  was  found  necessary  to  add  a  deflector  within 
the  cylinder,  since  the  evolution  of  gas  was  some- 
times so  rapid  that  bubbles  would  be  driven  to  the 
sides  of  the  cylinder  and  rise  outside  the  bell. 

The  carbide  was  at  first  dropped  down  the  charg- 
ing-pipe  by  hand.  As  the  capacity  of  the  bell  was 
twenty  cubic  feet,  and  as  it  was  undesirable  to  allow 
it  to  become  entirely  empty  of  gas  before  refilling,  it 
was  customary  to  add  the  carbide  in  charges  of 


134  LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 

about  three  pounds,  which  were  simply  dropped 
from  a  tin-can  into  the  charging-pipe. 

A  lively  evolution  of  gas  immediately  followed, 
lasting  about  ten  minutes,  when  the  carbide  was  all 
reduced  and  the  bell  full  of  gas. 

After  using  a  hundred  pounds  of  carbide,  the  pre- 
cipitated lime  was  pumped  out  into  a  couple  of  gal- 
vanized-iron  cans,  from  which,  after  the  lime  had 
settled  to  the  bottom,  the  water  was  decanted  back 
into  the  generator. 

An  agitator  was  incorporated  into  the  machine. 
The  central  part  of  its  lower  extremity  was  fitted  to 
the  bottom  of  the  pump  suction-pipe,  thereby  pre- 
venting lime  from  settling  and  becoming  impacted 
therein.  The  handle  of  the  agitator  passed  up 
through  the  bell,  for  which  it  formed  a  guide.  In 
use,  the  agitator  was  gently  revolved  a  few  times 
and  then  lifted  up  a  few  inches.  The  pump  was  im- 
mediately put  to  work,  and  no  difficulty  was  found 
in  removing  the  lime  in  the  form  of  a  thin  paste. 

Later  developments  showed  the  desirability  of 
making  the  operation  of  the  machine  continuous.  In 
order  to  accomplish  this  end,  an  automatic  device 
was  added  which  emptied  the  contents  of  a  sealed 
can  of  carbide  into  the  charging-tube  whenever  the 
bell  sank  to  a  certain  point.  Figs.  62,  63. 

At  first  the  expedient  of  soaking  the  carbide  in 
kerosene  was  tried,  and  the  charging-pipe,  or  chute, 
was,  after  the  manner  devised  by  Hospitallier,  partly 
filled  with  kerosene,  which  floated  upon  the  water. 

Two   objects   were  attained   by  this    procedure. 


AUTHOR  S    EXPERIMENTS 


135 


FIG.  62. 


136 


LIGHTING  BY   ACETYLENE 


FIG.  63. 

The  carbide  in  the  original  package  was  protected 
by  the  oil  from  the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  so  that, 
when  a  fresh  can  was  opened,  the  pouring1  in  of  a 
gallon  of  oil  rendered  the  use  of  an  air-tight  cover 
unnecessary. 


AUTHOR'S  EXPERIMENTS  137 

The  layer  of  oil  in  the  charging-pipe,  by  forming 
a  coating  on  the  carbide  in  its  passage  down  the 
chute,  delayed  the  action  of  the  water  until  the 
generator  was  entered. 

Continued  experiment  showed  that  the  oil  which 
entered  the  generator  with  the  carbide  was  so 
changed  in  structure  that  it  formed  a  thick,  unsightly 
scum  on  the  surface  of  the  water  under  the  bell, 
which  retarded  the  disengagement  of  gas  and  was  a 
most  disagreeable  feature  when  it  became  necessary 
to  clean  the  machine.  This  scum  finally  became  so 
troublesome  that  the  use  of  oil  was  reluctantly 
abandoned. 

The  cans  containing  the  carbide  on  the  distributor 
were  furnished  with  rubber  washers,  on  which  the 
cover  bore,  making  an  air-tight  joint  after  the  fash- 
ion of  the  ordinary  glass  fruit-jars.  It  was  also 
found  that  the  descent  of  the  carbide  through  the 
chute  was  so  rapid  that  practically  no  gas  was  given 
off  until  the  generator  was  reached. 

The  distributor  above  mentioned  consisted  of  a 
horizontal  disc  turning  freely  on  a  rod  which  passed 
through  its  centre.  It  was  pierced  near  its  edge 
with  a  row  of  holes,  each  of  which  held,  by  means  of 
a  bayonet-joint,  a  carbide  can  four  inches  in  diameter 
by  seven  inches  deep.  The  cans  were  held  top 
down,  and  the  cover  of  each  was  held  shut  against  a 
rubber  washer  by  means  of  a  spring  latch. 

A  ratchet  and  pawl,  operated  by  the  fall  of  the 
gasometer  bell,  brought  each  can  in  turn  over  the 
charging-pipe,  where  its  latch  was  tripped,  and  the 


138  LIGHTING  BY   ACETYLENE 

contents  dropped  down  the  chute  into  the  gener- 
ator. 

A  sufficient  number  of  cans  was  provided  to  hold 
the  contents  of  a  one-hundred-pound  package  of  car- 
bide, which,  on  being  opened,  was  at  once  distributed 
among  them  and  sealed  by  closing  the  air-tight 
covers. 

Once  a  week  the  empty  cans  were  removed  from 
the  distributor  and  replaced  by  full  ones.  A  glance 
showed  which  were  empty,  since  the  covers  hang 
down  after  the  latch  is  tripped. 

At  the  time  that  this  machine  was  constructed,  it 
was  thought  to  possess  some  advantages  over  others, 
inasmuch  as  it  was  non-freezing,  had  no  valves  nor 
cocks,  could  not  accumulate  pressure,  and  was  auto- 
matic in  action. 

It  was  seen,  however,  after  due  consideration,  that 
in  ignorant  hands  there  was  one  possibility  of  acci- 
dent. If,  in  pumping  out  the  lime,  the  level  of  the 
water  in  the  gasometer  was  unduly  lowered,  it  might 
happen  that  the  bell  would  reach  the  bottom  of  its 
travel.  Further  pumping  would  create  a  vacuum, 
tending  to  draw  the  flame  of  any  lighted  burners 
back  into  the  piping  and  eventually  to  the  bell. 
That  this  can  happen  seems  doubtful,  but  it  has 
been  said  to  have  occurred  under  certain  conditions. 
At  all  events,  the  lights  would  go  out  and  air  would 
enter  the  system.  Continued  pumping  would  lower 
the  level  of  the  water  below  the  edge  of  the  bell, 
allowing  air  to  enter.  If,  under  these  circumstances, 
the  generator  was  refilled  with  water  without  having 


AUTHOR'S  EXPERIMENTS  139 

taken  the  precaution  to  draw  off  the  mixture  of  air 
and  gas  from  the  bell,  the  conditions  would  favor  an 
explosion  if  a  flame  was  brought  into  proximity  with 
the  smallest  leak  or  imperfect  joint. 

In  order  to  guard  against  just  such  conditions, 
various  forms  of  machine  were  devised. 

Some  had  the  generator  and  gasometer  separate, 
while  others  provided  for  the  removal  of  the  lime 
by  lifting-out  cans,  into  which  the  precipitate  was 
directed. 

After  many  experiments,  the  original  form  of  ma- 
chine as  last  described  was  finally  adopted,  and  the 
very  simple  expedient  tried  of  making  a  small  hole 
through  the  wall  of  the  pump  suction-pipe  at  the 
lowest  intended  water-level,  since  it  was  found  that 
the  pump  removed  the  lime  perfectly  and  with  less 
labor  than  any  other  method. 

The  generator  finally  took  the  form  shown  in  the 
last  engraving,  after  passing  through  the  interme- 
diate stage  shown  in  Figs.  62  and  63. 

The  gas  generating  and  holding  portion  of  the 
acetylene  machine  is  contained  in  a  cylindrical  cis- 
tern of  iron  or  brick,  of  an  area  determined  by  the 
amount  of  gas  required. 

The  cistern  is  partly  filled  with  water,  the  surface 
of  which  is  below  the  line  of  frost. 

A  gasometer-bell  occupies  the  upper  portion  of 
the  cistern,  which  it  nearly  fills,  and  rises  or  sinks  in 
the  water  as  gas  enters  or  is  drawn  from  it. 

This  bell  is  provided  at  its  upper  part  with  an  air- 
tight, annular  flotation-chamber,  the  use  of  which 


140 


LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 


AUTHOR'S  EXPERIMENTS  141 

will  be  described  later,  and  has  at  its  lower  edge  a 
heavy  rim  of  iron,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  suffi- 
cient pressure  to  the  gas  contained  therein. 

The  bell  contains  a  central  tube,  open  at  the  bot- 
tom, which  projects  for  some  distance  above  the  top 
of  the  flotation-chamber  and  serves  as  a  duct  for 
leading  the  gas  from  the  bell  to  a  second  smaller 
concentric  tube  fixed  in  the  cistern. 

This  second  tube  has  openings  above  the  water- 
line  of  the  cistern,  and  is  connected  with  the  system 
of  piping  and  burners  where  the  gas  is  used.  Its 
upper  end  telescopes  into  the  tube  of  the  gas-holder, 
for  which  it  forms  a  guide. 

A  "  chute,"  contained  in  the  wall  of  the  cistern, 
directs  the  calcium  carbide  dropped  into  it  to  the 
generating  portion  of  the  machine,  located  at  the 
bottom  of  the  cistern. 

The  cistern  is  covered  by  a  drum  of  iron,  into 
which  the  gasometer  may  rise.  This  drum  is  closed 
on  top,  but  is  provided  with  a  vent-pipe  leading  into 
the  ventilator  of  the  small  iron  building  which  cov- 
ers the  whole  machine. 

On  a  circular  track  around  the  circumference  of 
the  drum  travels  a  series  of  small  cans. 

Each  can  has  a  hinged  bottom  provided  with  a 
rubber  washer  and  held  shut  by  a  latch.  Since  the 
cans,  when  closed,  are  air-tight,  the  carbide  within 
them  is  entirely  protected  from  the  air  until  the  mo- 
ment when  it  is  needed,  at  which  time  the  gasometer 
bell,  in  its  descent,  by  means  of  a  ratchet-and-pawl 
mechanism,  carries  a  can  of  carbide  over  the  chute, 


142  LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 

trips  the  latch  and  drops  the  contents  into  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cistern. 

The  gas  evolved  by  the  reaction  between  the  water 
and  the  calcium  carbide  rises  through  the  large 
quantity  of  water  above  it,  being  directed  into  the 
bell  by  means  of  the  deflector.  It  reaches  the  bell 
cool  and  thoroughly  washed. 

As  the  bell  rises  and  falls,  carbide  is  automatically 
fed  to  the  generator,  canful  by  canful,  so  long  as  any 
remains. 

The  removal  of  the  deposit  of  lime,  which  is  neces- 
sary only  at  long  intervals,  is  effected  by  means  of  a 
pump  and  a  suction-pipe  which  reaches  the  bottom 
of  the  cistern. 

A  small  hole  is  bored  through  the  suction-pipe  at 
the  normal  level  of  the  water  in  the  cistern. 

The  process  of  removing  the  lime  consists  in  first 
adding  water  to  that  in  the  cistern  until  the  level  is 
raised  a  couple  of  feet. 

The  pump  is  then  operated  as  long  as  it  removes 
lime  and  water. 

When  the  water  in  the  cistern  has  been  reduced 
by  pumping  to  its  normal  level,  air  enters  the  small 
hole  in  the  suction-pipe,  stopping  the  action  of  the 
pump. 

Consequently,  the  water-line  can  never  by  care- 
lessness be  brought  below  the  point  intended. 

The  operation  of  the  ratchet,  and  consequent  feed- 
ing of  carbide,  when  too  much  water  is  contained  in 
the  cistern,  would  be  undesirable,  causing  over-pro- 
duction and  waste  of  gas. 


AUTHOR'S  EXPERIMENTS  143 

This  is  prevented  by  the  flotation-chamber  con- 
tained  in  the  bell,  for,  since  the  bell  cannot  sink  below 
the  water-level,  it  cannot  fall  far  enough  to  operate 
the  can-moving  mechanism  unless  the  water-line  is 
normal. 

The  gas-delivery  pipe  has  a  branch  extending  into 
the  ventilator  of  the  covering-house,  with  a  cock  for 
allowing  the  gas  contained  in  the  bell  to  be  drawn 
off,  if  desired. 

A  loop  of  pipe  around  the  cock  contains  a  mer- 
curial seal,  which  automatically  discharges  any  sur- 
plus gas  in  case  its  pressure  exceeds  four  inches  of 
water. 

The  covering-house  protects  the  machine  from  the 
weather,  and  prevents  access  to  the  working  parts  by 
unauthorized  persons.  It  also  provides  ample  stor- 
age-room for  a  supply  of  calcium  carbide,  and  a 
place  in  which  the  carbide  may  be  transferred  from 
the  original  packages  to  the  air-tight  cans  in  which 
it  is  supplied  to  the  machine. 

A  sufficient  number  of  cans  is  provided,  in  addi- 
tion to  those  in  use,  to  hold  the  contents  of  a  one- 
hundred-pound  package  of  carbide. 

The  carbide  cans  are  held  in  place  on  the  charg- 
ing-wheel  of  the  machine  by  a  simple  fastening, 
which  permits  the  empty  ones  to  be  easily  removed 
and  full  ones  substituted. 

It  is  necessary  to  pump  out  the  lime  only  twice  a 
year  when  the  machine  is  supplying  the  ordinary 
demands  for  a  dwelling-house  in  which  there  are 
from  twenty-five  to  thirty  burners. 


144  LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 

In  suburban  places,  it  answers  perfectly  to  dis- 
pose of  the  lime  by  pumping  the  contents  of  the  ma- 
chine into  a  hole  dug  in  the  ground.  The  water 
disappears  in  a  short  time  by  seepage  leaving 
the  lime  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  which  is  then 
filled  with  the  earth  previously  taken  out.  A  hole 
three  feet  deep  is  ample  in  most  soils.  In  many 
cases,  a  smaller  one  will  do  as  well. 

Instead  of  making  the  outer  case  of  iron,  it  may 
be  built  up  of  brick  laid  in  portland  cement,  or  it 
may  be  formed  of  earthern  pipes,  which  may  be  ob- 
tained of  any  diameter  up  to  three  feet. 

In  giving  this  machine,  which  contains  about  forty 
cubic  feet  of  water,  its  initial  charge  of  calcium  car- 
bide, it  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  the  first  four  or 
five  pounds  of  the  substance  thrown  into  the  chute 
fail  to  cause  more  than  two  or  three  inches  rise  of 
the  gasometer  bell. 

In  other  words,  the  solubility  of  the  gas  in  the 
water  is  so  readily  effected  that,  until  a  consider- 
able degree  of  saturation  has  taken  place,  very 
few  of  the  bubbles  of  gas  which  are  generated  at 
the  base  of  the  machine  reach  the  surface  of  the 
water. 

The  action  reminds  one  of  the  "  singing  "  stage  of 
a  kettle  which  is  set  to  boil,  where  the  bubbles  of 
steam  generated  at  the  bottom  of  the  kettle  are  con- 
densed by  the  cooler  upper  portion  of  the  liquid  be- 
fore they  reach  its  surface. 

Two  inferences  may  be  drawn  from  these  facts: 
First,  that  the  renewal  of  the  water  should  be 


AUTHOR'S   EXPERIMENTS  145 

avoided  as  much  as  possible,  or  that  a  saline  solu- 
tion which  absorbs  only  five  per  cent,  of  its  volume 
of  gas  should  be  used. 

Second,  that  a  source  of  danger  from  explosions 
exists  in  this  body  of  gas-charged  water. 

Suppose  a  leak  had  been  discovered  in  the  bell  of 
the  gasometer.  A  careless  individual  might  let  all 
the  gas  escape,  and  then,  in  order  to  easily  reach 
the  bell,  might  draw  it  out  of  the  water,  letting  air 
enter  as  it  was  raised.  He  might  then,  without  re- 
moving it  from  the  liquid,  attempt  to  mend  the 
leak  with  a  soldering-copper  or  a  blow-pipe,  under 
the  impression  that  there  was  no  gas  in  the  bell. 
In  reality,  as  the  bell  was  raised,  the  pressure  on 
the  water  would  be  diminished,  so  that  a  certain 
amount  of  gas  would  be  set  free  and  would  min- 
gle with  the  air  in  the  bell,  forming  an  explosive 
mixture. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  the  usual  routine  of  gas  mak- 
ing and  using,  the  large  body  of  water  is  a  decided 
safeguard,  preventing,  as  it  does,  any  appreciable  rise 
of  temperature  of  the  carbide  or  gas,  and  therefore 
guarding  against  any  decomposition,  while  at  the 
same  time  it  gives  the  gas  a  thorough  washing  on 
its  way  to  the  bell. 

The  gas  generated  from  the  lumps  of  carbide 
leaves  them  in  a  continuous  stream  of  small  bubbles. 
There  is  no  violent,  sudden  or  explosive  action  vis- 
ible. Although  the  evolution  of  acetylene  is  rapid, 
the  gas  is  broken  up  into  very  small  bubble  units. 
From  this  it  follows  that,  while  the  surface  of  the 


146  LIGHTING  BY   ACETYLENE 

water,  as  seen  when  the  bell  is  removed,  is  thrown 
into  violent  commotion,  and  is  in  every  part  in  brisk 
ebullition,  the  water  itself  is  not  thrown  into  the  air, 
but  rolls  over  and  over  as  the  bubbles  leave  its  sur- 
face. 


CONCLUSION 

AFTER  a  careful  study  of  the  United  States  patent 
specifications  of  the  acetylene  generators,  which  will 
be  found  at'the  end  of  this  volume,  the  author  is  im- 
pressed with  the  curious  fact  that  they  may  all  be 
included  in  the  first  two  classes. 

The  greater  number  are  of  that  variety  in  which 
the  carbide  is  contained  in  a  closed  receptacle,  to 
which  water  is  fed  in  small  quantities. 

The  remainder  are  of  the  type  which  the  French 
call  "  briquet  hydrogen."  They  have  the  carbide 
suspended  in  a  basket  within  the  gas-holder,  with 
means  for  alternately  immersing  and  withdrawing  it 
from  the  water  contained  therein.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  one  machine,  which  occupies  an  intermediate 
position,  there  is  none  in  which  the  carbide  in  small 
charges  is  dropped  into  a  large  quantity  of  water. 
This  class  of  machine,  which  has  been  named  the 
"  chute  generator,"  offers  certain  advantages  which 
cannot  be  obtained  with  the  others. 

The  French  and  German  experimenters  upon 
acetylene,  who  have  earnestly  sought  the  best  means 
of  gas-production,  report  uniformly  in  favor  of  the 
chute  generator.  When  properly  made  and  in- 
stalled, however,  this  machine  is  rather  expensive. 

147 


148  LIGHTING  BY   ACETYLENE 

This  is  especially  so  when  means  are  provided 
for  the  periodical  removal  of  the  deposited  lime,  and 
when  the  generator  is  made  of  sufficient  capacity  to 
supply  gas  continuously  over  a  prolonged  space  of 
time. 

The  American  public,  as  a  whole,  is  unusually  well- 
informed  concerning  the  development  and  progress 
of  recent  inventions.  It  wishes,  moreover,  to  encour- 
age the  introduction  of  such  novelties  as  contribute 
to  its  comfort,  save  its  time,  lessen  its  labbr,  improve 
its  health,  or  in  any  way  render  more  easy  the  pur- 
suit of  happiness. 

That  the  American  is  by  nature  an  inventor  is  a 
proof  that  he  meets  with  support  from  his  fellows. 
Coupled,  however,  with  the  desire  to  look  with 
favor  upon  all  that  which  is  new  and  meritorious, 
there  is  constantly  in  the  demand  of  the  public  a 
cry  for  cheapness. 

The  advent  of  the  acetylene  light  has  satisfied  this 
requirement  with  an  illuminant  of  unprecedented 
excellence.  That  having  been  accomplished,  there 
seems  to  be  no  good  reason  why  further  demands 
for  a  cheap  generator,  unless  entirely  consistent  with 
safety  and  durability,  should  meet  with  encourage- 
ment. One  of  the  most  attractive  features  of  acety- 
lene production  is  the  ease  with  which  the  gas  may 
be  generated  in  quantity  sufficient  for  a  demonstra- 
tion of  its  properties.  It  seems  unfortunate,  how- 
ever, that  the  performance  of  the  crudest  and  most 
flimsy  generator  should  be,  to  the  uninitiated,  so 
satisfactory,  for  while,  as  has  been  said,  the  public 


CONCLUSION  149 

is  in  sympathy  with  new  devices,  it  lacks  the  techni- 
cal knowledge  to  differentiate  between  the  good  and 
poor  machine  upon  their  respective  showings. 

The  inventor  is  little  to  blame  who,  stimulated  by 
competition  and  the  inability  to  sell  any  but  the 
cheapest  generator,  reduces  the  size  and  cost  of  his 
machine  to  the  lowest  possible  limits. 

Acetylene  is,  until  "  something  happens,"  a  sub- 
stance so  easily  managed,  so  capable  of  control  and 
apparently  so  unlikely  to  manifest  its  latent  affini- 
ties, that  the  vigilance  of  the  experimenter  becomes 
relaxed.  He  attempts  things  in  his  increasing  con- 
fidence which  he  would  consider  dangerous  had  his 
experience  been  more  varied. 

The  very  simplicity  of  acetylene  production, 
which  renders  the  construction  of  cheap  and  unreli- 
able generators  possible,  has  acted  as  a  check  to  the 
further  development  of  the  art. 

The  public,  in  making  cheapness  the  most  impor- 
tant feature  of  a  machine,  is,  perhaps,  also  blameless, 
in  default  of  more  general  technical  information. 

As  acetylene  becomes  more  generally  used  and 
the  public  becomes  better  informed  concerning  the 
properties  of  the  gas  and  of  the  carbide,  it  will  be 
placed  in  a  position  to  decide  for  itself  how  much 
risk  it  is  warranted  in  taking. 

In  the  meantime,  the  responsibility  should  be 
made  to  rest  with  the  fire  insurance  companies.  It 
does,  in  fact,  rest  there  now,  for  it  is  true  that  safe 
and  efficient  generators  are  not  lacking.  It  is  also 
true  that  the  insurance  companies,  through  the 


150  LIGHTING   BY    ACETYLENE 

boards  of  fire  underwriters,  employ  experts  to  pass 
judgment  upon  the  machines  submitted  to  them. 

Unfortunately,  the  experts  in  some  cases  have  not 
paid  that  heed  to  the  increasing  use  of  acetylene 
generators  which  its  importance  would  seem  to 
demand.  Any  laxity  in  this  matter  will,  however,  be 
corrected  when  the  companies  who  write  insurance 
upon  property  containing  machines  of  doubtful 
safety  learn  by  costly  experience  the  error  of  their 
ways. 

As  a  guide  to  the  experimenter  who  is  seeking  to 
devise  an  acetylene  generator,  the  requirements  of 
the  New  York  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  are  here 
reprinted. 

These  requirements,  in  the  main  well  devised  to 
prevent  the  use  of  dangerous  machines,  are  certainly 
very  exacting,  but  in  the  present  state  of  the  art  a 
conservative  attitude  is  the  only  one  which  is  quite 
safe. 

As  more  experience  is  gained,  the  requirements 
will,  no  doubt,  be  changed  from  time  to  time,  in  order 
to  keep  abreast  of  the  developments. 

As  a  temporary  measure,  at  least,  they  seem  all 
that  ca-n  be  desired. 


REQUIREMENTS 

OF 

THE  NEW  YORK  BOARD  OF  FIRE  UNDERWRITERS 

FOR  THE 

Installation  of  Acetylene  Gas  Generators 

AND   FOR   THE 

STORAGE  OF  A  LIMITED  SUPPLY  OF  CALCIUM  CARBIDE. 


1.  Plans  and  specifications  in  detail  of  Acetylene  Gas  Gen- 
erators must  be  submitted  to  this  Board  for  approval,  and  a 
copy  of  the  same  placed  on  file  in  this  office.     If  the  plans  are 
approved,  a  special  examination  of  the  generating-  apparatus 
will  be  made  (at  the  expense  of  the  applicant),  and  if  it  is 
found  to  be  in  compliance  with  the  following1  requirements,  a 
certificate  of  approval  will  be  granted  :  , 

2.  The  generating  apparatus  must  be  located  in  an  out- 
side, fireproof  and  well-ventilated  building,  where  it  will  not 
be  an  exposure  to  any  adjoining  property.     The  buildings  in 
which  generators  having  a  capacity  of  more  than  twenty-five 
pounds  and  not  exceeding  one   hundred   pounds   of  calcium 
carbide  are  placed,  shall  not  be  located  within  ten  feet  of  any 
other  building  ;   and  the  buildings  in  which  generators  having 
a  larger  capacity  than  one  hundred  pounds  and  not  exceeding 
five  hundred  pounds  of  calcium  carbide  are  placed,  shall  be  re- 
stricted to  a  distance  of  not  less  than  twenty-five  feet  from  any 
other  building,  and  these  shall  have  the  constant  supervision 
of  a  competent  person. 

3.  The  dimensions  of  the  generator  building  must  be  con- 
fined to  the  requirements  of  the  apparatus,  and  the  limited 


152  LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 

supply  (hereinafter  mentioned)  of  surplus  calcium  carbide, 
which  must  be  packed  in  water-tight  metal  cans,  and  said 
buildings  shall  be  located  as  follows  : 

For  generators  with  capacity  of  more  than  twenty-five 
pounds  and  not  exceeding  one  hundred  pounds  of  calcium  car- 
bide, and,  in  addition,  one  hundred  pounds  of  surplus  carbide 
• — not  less  than  ten  feet  from  other  buildings. 

For  generators  with  capacity  of  over  one  hundred  pounds, 
and  not  exceeding  five  hundred  pounds  of  calcium  carbide, 
and,  in  addition,  not  over  five  hundred  pounds  of  surplus  car- 
bide— not  less  than  twenty-five  feet  from  other  buildings. 

The  storage  of  calcium  carbide  on  premises,  other  than  in 
generator  building,  is  absolutely  prohibited. 

4.  In  constructing  the  building,  dryness  and  ventilation 
must  be  secured.     To  meet  these  requirements,  the  floor  must 
be  raised  above  the  grade  on  which  the  building  is  located,  and 
suitable  drainage  provided.     Ventilation  is  to  be  obtained  by 
air  passing  from  the  outside  of  building  through  holes  at  the 
floor  and  through  a  pipe  at  least  six  inches  in  diameter,  at  the 
roof.     The  said  pipe  must  extend  at  least  four  feet  above  the 
roof,  and  must  be  topped  with  a  guard-cap,  and  if  there  be  any 
building  within  ten  feet  of  said  pipe,  then  the  ventilating  pipe 
must  be  carried  four  feet  above  the  roof  of  the  higher  building. 

5.  The  maximum  pressure  of  gas  stored  in  a  gas-holder 
shall  be  limited  to  eight  inches  of  water,  and  both  the  gener- 
ator and  gas-holder  shall  have  water  safety-seals  (not  to  ex- 
ceed the  same  limit)  in  connection  with  escape  pipes  of  not 
less  than  one  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter.     The  escape 
pipes  must  be  connected  above  the  roof  with  the  ventilating 
pipe  of  the  building  in  which  the  generator  is  located. 

6.  A  generator  in  which  the  gas  is  both  generated  and 
stored  (the  maximum  pressure  of  which  shall  not  exceed  five 
pounds  per  square  inch)   and  having  no  water-seal,  shall  be 
tested  to  withstand  a  hydraulic  pressure  of  twenty  pounds  per 
square  inch.     The  generator  shall  have  a  pressure-gauge,  also 


REQUIREMENTS   OF   FIRE   UNDERWRITERS        153 

a  safety-valve  (not  less  than  one  and  one-half  inches  in  dia- 
meter) adjusted  to  release  the  pressure  of  gas  should  it  rise 
above  the  prescribed  maximum  limit.  An  escape  pipe  must 
be  affixed  to  the  safety-valve,  and  connected  above  the  roof  to 
the  ventilating1  pipe  of  the  building-  in  which  the  generator  is 
located.  A  certificate  attesting-  the  hydraulic  test  is  to  be 
placed  on  file  in  this  office. 

7.  The  pressure  of  the  gas  shall  be  regulated  at  the  gen- 
erator or  gas-holder,  so  that  it  will  not  exceed  four  inches  of 
water  on  the  pipes  inside  of  the  building  to  be  lighted.     A  mer- 
curial seal,  set  to  that  pressure,  must  be  attached  to  the  sup- 
ply-pipe at  the  generating  building.     A   stop-valve   shall  be 
placed  on  the  supply-pipe  at  the  place  where  it  enters  the  in- 
side of  the  building  to  be  lighted. 

8.  All  generators  and  gas-holders  shall  be  connected  by 
at  least  one  and  one-half  inch  escape  pipes  and  stop  valves  with 
the  ventilating  pipe  at  the  roof  of  the  building,  through  which 
the  gas  can  be  conveyed  and  discharged  with  safety  on  the  out- 
side of  the  building. 

9.  Generators  must  be  constructed  so  that  they  can  be 
charged  with  calcium  carbide  at  all  times  without  allowing 
the  gas  to  escape  into  the  building. 

10.  Generators  shall  be  filled  with  calcium  carbide  by  day- 
light only,  and  all  generating  apparatus  must  be  in  charge  of 
persons  who  are  familiar  with  their  operation  and  are  fully 
competent  to  manage  them  under  all  circumstances. 

11.  No  artificial  light,  except  a  wire-guarded  incandescent 
electric  light,  may  be  used  inside  of  the  building  in  which  the 
g-as  is  generated,  and  no  heat  except  low-pressure  steam. 

12.  All  acetylene  gas  generators,  and  all  receptacles  con- 
taining acetylene  gas,  shall  be  made  of  iron  or  steel  through- 
out. 


154  LIGHTING   BY  ACETYLENE 

13.  The  residuum  of  the  calcium  carbide  when  removed 
from  the  generator  must  be  deposited  in  a  safe  location  out- 
side of  the  building  apart  from  any  combustible  material. 


LIQUID    ACETYLENE. 

14.     The  storage  of  liquid  acetylene  in  any  building,  or  the 
use  of  liquid  acetylene  gas,  is  absolutely  prohibited. 


UNITED  STATES  PATENTS  ON 

Calcium  Carbide  and  Acetylene  Apparatus 


CARBIDE  AND  ELECTRIC  FURNACES. 

NUMBER. 

DATE. 

INVENTOR. 

TITLE. 

492,767 
Reissue 
11,473 
541,137 
541,138 

551,461 

Reissue 
11,511 
552,036 

552,890 
555,796 
557,057 

560,291 
562,402 

563,527 
563,528 
571,084 

572,636 

578,685 

583,498 
587,138 

Jan.  28,1893  | 

Feb.  26,1895  ) 
June  18,  1895 
June  18,  1895 

Dec.  17,  1895 

Oct.  22,  1895 
Dec.  24,  1895 

Jan.  14,  1896 
Mar.    3,  1896 
Mar.  24,  1896 

May  19,  1896 
June  23,  1896 

July    7,  1896 
July    7,  1896 
Nov.  10,  1896 

Dec.     8,  1896 
Mar.     9,  1897 

June    1,  1897 
July  27,  1897 

Acheson,  Edward  G  .  .  •< 

Willson,  Thomas  L  
Willson  Thomas  L 

Production  of   artificial, 
crystalline,  carbonace- 
ous materials. 
Calcium  carbide  process. 
Product  existing  in  crys- 
talline calcium  carbide. 
Art  of  producing  calcium 
carbide. 

Calcium  carbide  process. 
Material  for  incandescent 
conductors. 
Manufacture  of  calcium 
carbide. 
Compound  of  magnesium 
and  calcium  carbide. 
Process  and  apparatus 
for  producing   metallic 
compounds  by  electric- 
ity- 
Electrical  furnace. 
Process  of  forming  calci- 
um carbide. 
Process  of  producing  cal- 
cium compounds. 
Process  of  manufacturing 
hydro-carbon  gas. 
Composition     of    matter 
for  manufacturing  cal- 
cium carbide. 
Electric  furnace. 
Process  and  apparatus 
for  producing  calcium 
carbide. 
Manufacture    of   carbide 
of  calcium. 
Process  of  and  apparatus 
for  manufacturing  me- 
tallic carbides. 

Clarke  William  C 

Willson,  Thomas  L.  .  .  .  . 
Bohm,  Ludwig  K. 

Clarke,  William  C  

Whitehead,  C  .  . 

Dickerson,  Edward  N  .  . 

Acheson,  Edward  G  
King,   William  R.,  and 
Wyatt,  Francis. 
Willson,  Thomas  L  

Willson,  Thomas  L  

E  1  d  r  i  d  g  e  ,  Hilliary, 
Clark,  Daniel  J.,  and 
Wambaugh,  Mahlon  W. 
Hewes,  James  E  

Whitney,  Edwin  R  

Morehead,  James  T  
Roberts,  Isaiah  L  

155 


LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 


CARBIDE  AND   ELECTRIC  FURNACES—  Co  ntinued. 


NUMBEB. 

DATE. 

INVENTOR. 

TITLE. 

587,343 
587,509 

588,012 

588,866 
589,592 

589,967 

590,514 
597,945 

535,944 

541,429 
541,428 
541,427 
541,526 
542,320 

550,162 
552,027 
552,028 

551,815 
552,048 

55-3,375 
552,099 

552,101 
552,100 
553,443 

Aug.    3,  1897 
Aug.    3,  1897 

Aug.  10,  1897 

Aug.  24,  1897 
Sept.   7,  1897 

Sept.  14,  1897 

Sept.  21,  1897 
Jan.   25,  1898 

Mar.  19,  1895 

June  18,  1895 
June  18,  1895 
June  18,  1895 
June  25,  1895 
July    9,  1895 

Nov.  19,  1895 
Dec.  24,  1895 
Dec.  24,  1895 

Dec.  24,  1895 
Dec.  24,  1895 

Dec.  31,  1895 
Dec.  31,  1895 

Dec.  31,  1895 
Dec.  31,  1895 
Jan.  21,  1896 

Strong  George  S 

Electric  furnace. 
Process  of  and  apparatus 
for  making  metallic 
carbides. 
Process  of  and  apparatus 
for   making  metallic 
carbides. 
Means  for  manufacturing 
carbides. 
Composition    of     matter 
for  manufacturing  cal- 
cium carbide. 
Composition    for   manu- 
facturing calcium  car- 
bides. 
Process  of  producing  me- 
tallic carbides. 
Electric  furnace. 

Process  of  and  apparatus 
for  producing  and  lique- 
fying acetylene  gas. 
Process  and  apparatus  for 
producing  gas. 
Automatic  gas-holder  re- 
lief-valve. 
Apparatus  for  production 
of  gas. 
Process  of  and  apparatus 
for  manufacture  of  gas. 
Process  of  and  apparatus 
for  manufacture  of  gas. 
Gas-governor. 
Process  of  generating  gas. 
Apparatus  for  generating 
gas. 
Apparatus  for  manufact- 
ure of  gas. 
Process  of  and  apparatus 
for  mingling  gases. 
Acetylene  gas  generator. 
Apparatus  for  generating 
gas. 
Apparatus  for  generating 
and  supplying  gas. 
Apparatus  for  generating 
gas. 
Process    of    carburetting 
water-gas. 

Roberts,  Isaiah  L  

Roberts,  Isaiah  L  .  . 

Kenevel,  Jeannott  W.  .  . 
Blum,  Sylvain  

Heath,  Robert  F.  S  
Cowles,  Alfred  H 

Bradley  C  S 

GENERATORS. 

Dickerson,  Edward  N.. 

Dickerson,  Edward  N.. 
Dickerson,  Edward  N.. 
Dickerson,  Edward  N.. 
Dickerson,  Edward  N.. 
Willson  Thomas  R 

Dickerson,  Edward  N  .  . 
Willson,  Thomas  L  
Willson,  Thomas  L  

Parns  worth,  Ezra  
Dickerson,  Edward  N.  .  . 

Jones,  Charles  C  
Clarke  William  C 

Clarke  William  C 

Clarke  William  C  . 

Willson,  Thomas  R  

UNITED   STATES   PATENTS 
GENERA  TORS—  Continued. 


157 


NUMBER. 

DATE. 

INVENTOR. 

TITLE.  . 

553  550 

Jan    28  1896 

Willson  Thomas  L 

Process  of  producing  il- 

553,781 
555,149 

555,198 
555,212 

556  115 

Jan.   28,  1896 
Feb.  25,  1896 

Feb.  25,  1896 
Feb.  25,  1896 

Mar   10  1896 

Dickerson,  Edward  N  .  . 
Dickerson,  Edward  N  .  . 

Willson,  Thomas  L  
Dickerson,  Edward  N  .  . 

Turney  E  T 

luminating  gas. 
Apparatus  for  producing 
gas. 
Process  for  and  apparatus 
for    burning    liquefied 
gas. 
Process    of  making    and 
consuming  gas. 
Process  of  and  apparatus 
for    producing    illumi- 
nating gas. 
Process  of  and  apparatus 

556,736 

Mar.  24,  1896 

Clarke,  William  C..  .. 

for    producing   illumi- 
nating gas. 
Method  of  and  apparatus 

556  737 

Mar.  24  1896 

Clarke  William  C 

for    generating    acety- 
lene. 
Method  of  generatin01  il- 

556,910 

Mar.  24,  1896 

Wilkinson,  A.  W  

luminating  gas. 
Process  of  manufacturing 

556,911 

Mar.  24,  1896 

Wilkinson,  A.  W  

gas. 
Process  of  manufacturing 

558,746 

559,846 
560  405 

April  21,  1896 

May  12,  1896 
May  19  1896 

DeSieghardt,  O.T  

Gray,  G.  J.,  and  Hitch- 
cock, W.  F. 
Fuller,  H.  F 

gas. 
Apparatus  for  generating 
and    storing  acetylene 
gas. 
Apparatus  for  manufact- 
uring acetylene  gas. 
Acetylene  gas  generator 

560,549 
560,784 
561,208 
561,701 
562,040 

May  19,  1896 
May  26,  1896 
June    2,  1896 
June    9,  1896 
June  16,  1896 

Seward,  O.  G.,  Mille,  O. 
E.,  and  Ham,  M.  J... 
Dickerson,  Edward  N  .  . 

Dickerson,  Edward  N"  .  . 
Dickerson,  Edward  N  .  . 
Sergeant,  H.  C 

Automatic  gas  generator. 
Valve-lockingmechanism 
for  gas  generators. 
Automatic  acetylene  gas 
apparatus. 
Process    of  producing 
acetylene  gas. 
Gas  generator 

562,401 
562,911 

June  23,  1896 
June  30  1896 

King,  W.  R.,   and  Wy- 
att,  F. 
Potter  J.  C 

Apparatus  for  generating 
acetylene  gas. 
Acetylene  gas  generator. 

563,457 
563,980 

July     7,  1896 
July  14   1896 

Dickerson,  Edward  N  .  . 
Morley  J.  H  .  .. 

Acetylene  gas  generator. 
Acetylene  ""as  generator. 

563,981 

July  14   1896 

Morley  J.  H  

Acetylene  "'as  generator. 

564,684 
565,157 
566,660 

July  28,  1896 
Aug.    4,  1896 
Aug.  25,  1896 

Dickerson,  Edward  N  .  . 
Dickerson,  Edward  N  .  . 
Clarke  H  B  ... 

Gas-mixing  device. 
Gas-mixer. 
Acetvlene  generator  and 

566  901 

Sept.   1   1896 

Fuller  H  F 

bicycle-lamp. 
Acetylene  gas  generator. 

567,641 

Sept.  15,  1896 

Eldridge,  H.., 

Gas-generating  apparatus 

LIGHTING  BY  ACETYLENE 
GENERATORS—  Continued. 


NUMBEB. 

DATE. 

INVENTOR. 

TITLE. 

567,773 

569,273 

Sept.  15,  1896 
Oct.  13,  1896 

Rossback-Rousset,  F  .  .  . 
Bucher,  A.  S  

Gas-generating  lamp. 
Acetylene  gas  generator. 

509,208 

Oct.   20,  1896 

Exley,  J.  H  

Apparatus  for  manufact- 

571,269 

Nov.  10,  1896 

Janeway,  J.  L  

uring  acetylene. 
Process  of  manufacturing 

571,576 

Nov.  17  1896 

Porter,  J.  C 

gas. 
Gas  generator 

572,113 
573996 

Dec.     1,  1896 
Dec    29  1896 

Hill,  W.  P.,  and  H.  D.. 
Owen  R.  L 

Acetylene  gas  generator. 
Gas-distributing  appara- 

573,938 

Dec.  29  1896 

Waite,  JohnH  

tus. 
Acetylene  gas  generator 

574  601 

Jan.     5  1897 

Casgrain,  H.  E  

Acetylene  gas  generating 

575  281 

Jan.  12  1897 

Buffington   L.  S.  . 

lamp. 
Apparatus  for  generating 

575  474 

Jan    19  1897 

Fuller  Henry  F 

acetylene  gas. 
Gas  generator  for  acety- 

575,677 

Jan,  19  1897 

Fuller,  Henry  F  

lene. 
Method  and  apparatus  for 

575,885 
575,884 
576,386 

Jan.  26,  1897 
Jan.  26,  1897 
Feb.     2,  1897 

Fourchotte,  M.  C.  A.... 
Fourchotte,  M.  C.  A.  ... 
Voisard,  E.  P  .  .  , 

generating  acetylene 
gas. 
Apparatus  for  producing 
acetylene  gas. 
Apparatus  for  producing 
acetylene  gas. 
Acetylene  gas  generator. 

576,585 
576,826 

Feb.    9,  1897 
Feb.    9,  1897 

Kidder,  Moses  W  
Sergeant,  H.  C   

Apparatus  for  generating 
acetylene  gas. 
Generator  for  making 

576  529 

Feb.     9  1897 

Addicks  W.  R. 

acetylene  gas. 
Apparatus  for  manufact- 

576 827 

Feb     9  1897 

Sergeant  H  C                . 

uring  gas. 
Acetylene  gas  holder 

576,893 
576,955 

577,051 

577,803 

Feb.    9,  1897' 
Feb.    9,  1897 

Feb.  16,  1897 
Feb.  23,  1897 

Reynolds,  D.  J  
Deuther,  J  A  

Matthews,  Charles,  Jr.. 
Willson  Thomas  L  .  .  .  . 

Acetylene  gas  generator. 
Method  of  and  apparatus 
for  generating  gas. 
Acetylene  gas  generator. 
Process  of  producing  and 

577,706 

Feb.  23,  1897 

Archer,  G.  S.,  and  Bur- 

consuming    hydro-car- 
bon gas. 

Acetylene  gas  generator. 

577,762 

Feb.  23,  1897 

Lawrence,  R.  S  

Apparatus  for  increasing 

578,055 
578,847 
578,972 

Mar.    2,  1897 
Mar.  16,  1897 
Mar.  16,  1897 

Fuller,  Henry  F  
Wilcox,  Clementina  H.  . 

candle-power  of  gas. 
Acetylene  gas  generator. 
Acetylene  gas  generator. 
Acetylene  gas  generator. 

579,702 
579,689 

Mar.  30,  1897 
Mar.  30,  1897 

Dickerson,  Edward  N... 
Vincent,  J.  A  

Acetylene  gas  producing 
apparatus. 
Acetylene  gas  producing 

apparatus. 

UNITED   STATES   PATENTS 
GENERATORS—  Continued. 


159 


NUMBER. 

DATE. 

INVENTOR. 

TITLE. 

580  624 

\prill3  1897 

Napheys  EC 

Acetylene  gas  producing 

580  650 

April  13  1897 

Reynolds   D  J 

apparatus. 
Acetylene  gas  generator 

581  020 

April  20  1897 

Dennis  William  H 

Acetylene  gas  generating 

581  699 

May    4  1897 

Doddridge,  A.  F  

lamp. 
Apparatus  for  generating 

582,274 
582546 

May  11,  1897 
May  11    1897 

Dickerson,  Edward  N.  .  . 
Patterson  J  J 

acetylene  gas. 
Apparatus  for  gasifying 
and  controlling   lique- 
fied or  compressed  gas. 
Apparatus  for  generating 

582  548 

May  11   1897 

Rand  Charles  E 

acetylene  gas. 
Process   of  generating 

583,582 
583,761 

June    1,  1897 
June    1,  1897 

Rhind,  Frank  
Mitchell,  F.  A  . 

acetylene  gas. 
Gas  generating  lamp. 
Acetylene  gas  generator. 

584  339 

June  15  1897 

Exley,  J.  H 

Apparatus  for  manufact- 

584,772 
584931 

June  22,  1897 
June  22  1897 

Dickerson,  Edward  N., 
and  Suckert,  J.  J. 
Fuller    H   F. 

uring  acetylene  gas. 
Apparatus  for  burning 
acetylene  gas. 
Acetylene  gas  generator 

584,946 

June  22,  1897 

Luckenbach,  R  

Acetylene  gas  apparatus. 

585,625 

June  29  1897 

Dougherty,  J.  F  

Acetylene  gas  generator. 

585642 

June  29  1897 

Gallagher,  J.  C  

Gas  generator  for  lamps. 

586  194 

July  13   1897 

Matthews,  C.  ,  Jr  

Acetylene  gas  apparatus. 

586  517 

July  13  1897 

Hawley,  C.  G  

Acetylene  gas  lamp. 

587,914 
588230 

Aug.  10,  1897 
Aug  17  1897 

Becherel,  C.  F.  J.  B  .  .  .  . 
Mackusick  E.  F 

Apparatus  for  producing 
acetylene  gas. 
Process  of  generating  gas 

588  535 

Aug  17  1897 

from  carbide. 
Acetylene  gas  generator. 

588  593 

Aug  24  1897 

Morency  D.  C  

Apparatus  for  generating 

589  404 

Sept    7    1897 

Bettini  G. 

acetylene  gas. 
Acetylene  gas  lamp. 

589  713 

Sept    7  1897 

Gallagher  J   C 

Process  and  apparatus  for 

589,799 

Sept.  7,   1897 

Taylor,  George  

generating   acetylene 
gas. 
Acetylene  gas  generator. 

590,441 

Sept.  21,  1897 

Reynolds,  D.  J  

Acetylene  gas  generator. 

590  674 

Sept  28  1897 

Strom    A   A 

Apparatus  for  generating 

590,592 
590  941 

Sept.  28,  1897 
Sept  28  1897 

Pyle,    H.  L.,    Lichten- 
stein,  L.  ,  and  Brison, 
J.  C. 
Beck  Charles  W 

acetylene  gas. 
Apparatus  for  generating 
acetylene  gas. 

Lamp  for  generating  and 

590  955 

Oct      5  1897 

Beck  Charles  W 

burning  acetylene  gas. 
Acetylene  gas  lamp. 

59l'l32 

Oct      5  1897 

Handshy,  H.  M  

Acetvlene  gas  lamp. 

591,367 
592083 

Oct.     5,  1897 
Oct    19  1897 

Beck,  Charles  W  
Dupee,  J.  C  

Acetylene  gas  lamp. 
Acetylene  gas  generator. 

592.084 

Oct.  19.  1897 

Dupee,  J.  C  .  .  . 

Acetylene  gas  generator. 

i6o 


LIGHTING  BY  ACETYLENE 
GENERATORS—  Continued. 


NUMBER. 

DATE. 

INVKNTOB. 

TITLE. 

592,759 

Nov.    2,  1897 

Bellamy,  C.  H  

Apparatus  for  generating 

593,122 
593,628 

Nov.    2,  1897 
Nov.  16,  1897 

Raymond,     J.    M.,   and 
Lemley,  L.  E. 
Williams,  B.  F  

acetylene  gas. 
Acetylene  gas  generator. 

Generator    for  acetylene 

594,175 

Nov.  23,  1897 

Hellwig,  Otto  S  

gas. 
Acetylene  gas  generator. 

594,826 

Nov.  30  1897 

Ferguson   J.  S 

Acetylene  gas  generator 

594,849 

Dec     7  1897 

Bettini  G. 

Acetylene  gas  generator 

595,119 

Dec     7  1897 

Couper   J.  H. 

Acetylene  gas  generator 

595,230 
595,451 

Dec.     7.  1897 
Dec.  14,  1897 

WMttemore,  L.  D.,  Jr.. 

Choquette,     C.    P.,   and 
Morin  A.  M  

Combined    lamp    and 
acetylene  generator. 

Acetylene  gas  generator. 

595,621 

Dec.  14  1897 

Gobron    A       

Acetylene  gas  generating 

595,668 

Dec.  14  1897 

Bryant  H 

lamp. 
Acetylene  gas  machine. 

595,816 
595,924 
596,139 

Dec.  21,  1897 
Dec.  21,  1897 
Dec.  28,  1897 

Lebrun,    G.,    and     Cor- 
naille,  P. 
Ruhe,  W.  A.,    and  Bur- 
bank,  H.  S. 
Bolton,  Werner    .  .  . 

Apparatus  for  producing 
acetylene  gas. 
Acetylene  gas  apparatus. 

Process  of  generating 

596,144 

Dec.  28  1897 

Dolan   E  J 

acetylene  gas. 
Burner  for  rich,  gases 

596,138 

Dec.  28,  189? 

Blanchard,  D.  R. 

especially     acetylene 
gas. 
Acetylene  gas  generator 

596,112 

Dec.  28,  1897 

Henkle,   L.,     and    God- 
dard,  F.  H. 

Acetylene  gas  burner 

596,577 

Jan.     4,  1898 

Dolan,  E.  J 

596,578 
596,703 

Jan.     4,  1898 
Jan.     4,  1898 

Dolan,  E.  J  
Harrison,  P.  R  

Acetylene  gas  burner. 
Acetylene  gas  generating 

596,937 

Jan.     4,  1898 

Kerr,  J.  G... 

lamp. 
Acetylene  gas  apparatus. 

597,291 

Jan.  11,  1898 

Leede,  J  

Acetylene  gas  apparatus. 

597,495 

Jan.   18,  1898 

Dolan,  E.  J  .  . 

Acetylene  gas  heater. 

597,937 

Jan.  25,  1898 

Bell,  H.  J  

Acetylene  generator. 

598,048 

Jan.  25,  1898 

Carter,  R.  F  

Apparatus  for  producing 

598,213 

Feb.     1,1898 

Wilson,  C.  L.,.Unger,  J. 
W.,   Muma  C.,  Brosi- 
us,  A.  P.  ,  and  Kuchel, 
J    C 

acetylene  gas. 
Acetylene  gas  generator. 

598,767 

Feb.     8  1898 

Carter  R  F. 

Apparatus  for  producing 

598,837 

Feb.     8,  1898 

Appleby,  E  

acetylene  gas. 
Acetylene  gas  apparatus. 

598,868 
599  074 

Feb.     8,  1898 
Feb    15  1898 

Hardwick,    J.    L.,    and 
Manville,  S.   O  
Dederick    Z   P 

Acetylene  gas  generator. 

599,098 

Feb.  15,  1898 

Hanotier,  V.,  and  Hos- 
telet,  G. 

Apparatus  for  producing 
acetylene  gas. 

UNITED   STATES   PATENTS 
GENERATORS—  Continued. 


161 


NUMBER. 

DATE. 

INVENTOR. 

TITLE. 

599,198 

Feb.  15,  1898 

Serres,  L  

Lamp     for    generating 

599,270 

Feb.  15,  1898 

Stein,  A.  K  

acetylene  gas. 
Apparatus  for  venerating 

599,347 

Feb.  22,  1898 

McMurray,  P  .  .         .... 

acetylene  gas. 
Acetylene  gas  generator 

599,394 

Feb.  22,  1898 

Laun,  H.  W,  and  E.  E.  . 

Acetylene  gas  generator. 

OF  THE 

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THIS 


DATE 


AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

LASSESSED   F°R   FAILU 


p™  TO   RETTURN 

BOOK   ON    THE    DATE   DUE.    THE   PENALTY 

T°  5°  CENTS  °N 

'-°°  °N  ™E  SEVENTH 


IS  1940 


LD  21-100m-7,'39(4028) 


YB   1541 


